#"> %"> ]> FreeBSD Handbook The FreeBSD Documentation Project March 1998 Welcome to FreeBSD! This handbook covers the installation and day to day use of FreeBSD Release &rel.current;. This manual is a work in progress and is the work of many individuals. Many sections do not yet exist and some of those that do exist need to be updated. If you are interested in helping with this project, send email to the &a.doc; The latest version of this document is always available from the FreeBSD World Wide Web server. It may also be downloaded in plain text, postscript or HTML from the FreeBSD FTP server or one of the numerous . You may also want to Search the Handbook. Getting Started Introduction FreeBSD is a 4.4BSD-Lite based operating system for Intel architecture (x86) based PCs. For an overview of FreeBSD, see . For a history of the project, read . To see a description of the latest release, read . If you're interested in contributing something to the FreeBSD project (code, equipment, sacks of unmarked bills), please see about . FreeBSD in a Nutshell FreeBSD is a state of the art operating system for personal computers based on the Intel CPU architecture, which includes the 386, 486 and Pentium processors (both SX and DX versions). Intel compatible CPUs from AMD and Cyrix are supported as well. FreeBSD provides you with many advanced features previously available only on much more expensive computers. These features include: Preemptive multitasking with dynamic priority adjustment to ensure smooth and fair sharing of the computer between applications and users. Multiuser access means that many people can use a FreeBSD system simultaneously for a variety of things. System peripherals such as printers and tape drives are also properly SHARED BETWEEN ALL users on the system. Complete TCP/IP networking including SLIP, PPP, NFS and NIS support. This means that your FreeBSD machine can inter-operate easily with other systems as well act as an enterprise server, providing vital functions such as NFS (remote file access) and e-mail services or putting your organization on the Internet with WWW, ftp, routing and firewall (security) services. Memory protection ensures that applications (or users) cannot interfere with each other. One application crashing will not affect others in any way. FreeBSD is a 32-bit operating system and was designed as such from the ground up. The industry standard X Window System (X11R6) provides a graphical user interface (GUI) for the cost of a common VGA card and monitor and comes with full sources. Binary compatibility with many programs built for SCO, BSDI, NetBSD, Linux and 386BSD. Hundreds of ready-to-run applications are available from the FreeBSD ports and packages collection. Why search the net when you can find it all right here? Thousands of additional and easy-to-port applications available on the Internet. FreeBSD is source code compatible with most popular commercial Unix systems and thus most applications require few, if any, changes to compile. Demand paged virtual memory and merged VM/buffer cache design efficiently satisfies applications with large appetites for memory while still maintaining interactive response to other users. Shared libraries (the Unix equivalent of MS-Windows DLLs) provide for efficient use of disk space and memory. A full compliment of C, C++ and Fortran development tools. Many additional languages for advanced research and development are also available in the ports and packages collection. Source code for the entire system means you have the greatest degree of control over your environment. Why be locked into a proprietary solution and at the mercy of your vendor when you can have a truly Open System? Extensive on-line documentation. And many more! FreeBSD is based on the 4.4BSD-Lite release from Computer Systems Research Group (CSRG) at the University of California at Berkeley, and carries on the distinguished tradition of BSD systems development. In addition to the fine work provided by CSRG, the FreeBSD Project has put in many thousands of hours in fine tuning the system for maximum performance and reliability in real-life load situations. As many of the commercial giants struggle to field PC operating systems with such features, performance and reliability, FreeBSD can offer them now! The applications to which FreeBSD can be put are truly limited only by your own imagination. From software development to factory automation, inventory control to azimuth correction of remote satellite antennae; if it can be done with a commercial UNIX product then it is more than likely that you can do it with FreeBSD, too! FreeBSD also benefits significantly from the literally thousands of high quality applications developed by research centers and universities around the world, often available at little to no cost. Commercial applications are also available and appearing in greater numbers every day. Because the source code for FreeBSD itself is generally available, the system can also be customized to an almost unheard of degree for special applications or projects, and in ways not generally possible with operating systems from most major commercial vendors. Here is just a sampling of some of the applications in which people are currently using FreeBSD: Internet Services: The robust TCP/IP networking built into FreeBSD makes it an ideal platform for a variety of Internet services such as: FTP servers World Wide Web servers Gopher servers Electronic Mail servers USENET News Bulletin Board Systems And more... You can easily start out small with an inexpensive 386 class PC and upgrade as your enterprise grows. Education: Are you a student of computer science or a related engineering field? There is no better way of learning about operating systems, computer architecture and networking than the hands on, under the hood experience that FreeBSD can provide. A number of freely available CAD, mathematical and graphic design packages also make it highly useful to those whose primary interest in a computer is to get other work done! Research: With source code for the entire system available, FreeBSD is an excellent platform for research in operating systems as well as other branches of computer science. FreeBSD's freely available nature also makes it possible for remote groups to collaborate on ideas or shared development without having to worry about special licensing agreements or limitations on what may be discussed in open forums. Networking: Need a new router? A name server (DNS)? A firewall to keep people out of your internal network? FreeBSD can easily turn that unused 386 or 486 PC sitting in the corner into an advanced router with sophisticated packet filtering capabilities. X Window workstation: FreeBSD is a fine choice for an inexpensive X terminal solution, either using the freely available XFree86 server or one of the excellent commercial servers provided by X Inside. Unlike an X terminal, FreeBSD allows many applications to be run locally, if desired, thus relieving the burden on a central server. FreeBSD can even boot diskless, making individual workstations even cheaper and easier to administer. Software Development: The basic FreeBSD system comes with a full compliment of development tools including the renowned GNU C/C++ compiler and debugger. FreeBSD is available in both source and binary form on CDROM and via anonymous ftp. See for more details. A Brief History of FreeBSD Contributed by &a.jkh;. The FreeBSD project had its genesis in the early part of 1993, partially as an outgrowth of the Unofficial 386BSD Patchkit by the patchkit's last 3 coordinators: Nate Williams, Rod Grimes and myself. Our original goal was to produce an intermediate snapshot of 386BSD in order to fix a number of problems with it that the patchkit mechanism just was not capable of solving. Some of you may remember the early working title for the project being 386BSD 0.5 or 386BSD Interim in reference to that fact. 386BSD was Bill Jolitz's operating system, which had been up to that point suffering rather severely from almost a year's worth of neglect. As the patchkit swelled ever more uncomfortably with each passing day, we were in unanimous agreement that something had to be done and decided to try and assist Bill by providing this interim cleanup snapshot. Those plans came to a rude halt when Bill Jolitz suddenly decided to withdraw his sanction from the project and without any clear indication of what would be done instead. It did not take us long to decide that the goal remained worthwhile, even without Bill's support, and so we adopted the name FreeBSD, coined by David Greenman. Our initial objectives were set after consulting with the system's current users and, once it became clear that the project was on the road to perhaps even becoming a reality, I contacted Walnut Creek CDROM with an eye towards improving FreeBSD's distribution channels for those many unfortunates without easy access to the Internet. Walnut Creek CDROM not only supported the idea of distributing FreeBSD on CD but went so far as to provide the project with a machine to work on and a fast Internet connection. Without Walnut Creek CDROM's almost unprecedented degree of faith in what was, at the time, a completely unknown project, it is quite unlikely that FreeBSD would have gotten as far, as fast, as it has today. The first CDROM (and general net-wide) distribution was FreeBSD 1.0, released in December of 1993. This was based on the 4.3BSD-Lite (Net/2) tape from U.C. Berkeley, with many components also provided by 386BSD and the Free Software Foundation. It was a fairly reasonable success for a first offering, and we followed it with the highly successful FreeBSD 1.1 release in May of 1994. Around this time, some rather unexpected storm clouds formed on the horizon as Novell and U.C. Berkeley settled their long-running lawsuit over the legal status of the Berkeley Net/2 tape. A condition of that settlement was U.C. Berkeley's concession that large parts of Net/2 were encumbered code and the property of Novell, who had in turn acquired it from AT&T some time previously. What Berkeley got in return was Novell's blessing that the 4.4BSD-Lite release, when it was finally released, would be declared unencumbered and all existing Net/2 users would be strongly encouraged to switch. This included FreeBSD, and the project was given until the end of July 1994 to stop shipping its own Net/2 based product. Under the terms of that agreement, the project was allowed one last release before the deadline, that release being FreeBSD 1.1.5.1. FreeBSD then set about the arduous task of literally re-inventing itself from a completely new and rather incomplete set of 4.4BSD-Lite bits. The Lite releases were light in part because Berkeley's CSRG had removed large chunks of code required for actually constructing a bootable running system (due to various legal requirements) and the fact that the Intel port of 4.4 was highly incomplete. It took the project until December of 1994 to make this transition, and in January of 1995 it released FreeBSD 2.0 to the net and on CDROM. Despite being still more than a little rough around the edges, the release was a significant success and was followed by the more robust and easier to install FreeBSD 2.0.5 release in June of 1995. We released FreeBSD 2.1.5 in August of 1996, and it appeared to be popular enough among the ISP and commercial communities that another release along the 2.1-stable branch was merited. This was FreeBSD 2.1.7.1, released in February 1997 and capping the end of mainstream development on 2.1-stable. Now in maintenance mode, only security enhancements and other critical bug fixes will be done on this branch (RELENG_2_1_0). FreeBSD 2.2 was branched from the development mainline (-current) in November 1996 as the RELENG_2_2 branch, and the first full release (2.2.1) was released in April, 1997. Further releases along the 2.2 branch were done in the Summer and Fall of '97, the latest being 2.2.6 which appeared in late March of '98. The first official 3.0 release will appear later in 1998. Long term development projects for everything from SMP to DEC ALPHA support will continue to take place in the 3.0-current branch and SNAPshot releases of 3.0 on CDROM (and, of course, on the net). FreeBSD Project Goals Contributed by &a.jkh;. The goals of the FreeBSD Project are to provide software that may be used for any purpose and without strings attached. Many of us have a significant investment in the code (and project) and would certainly not mind a little financial compensation now and then, but we're definitely not prepared to insist on it. We believe that our first and foremost mission is to provide code to any and all comers, and for whatever purpose, so that the code gets the widest possible use and provides the widest possible benefit. This is, I believe, one of the most fundamental goals of Free Software and one that we enthusiastically support. That code in our source tree which falls under the GNU Public License (GPL) or GNU Library Public License (GLPL) comes with slightly more strings attached, though at least on the side of enforced access rather than the usual opposite. Due to the additional complexities that can evolve in the commercial use of GPL software, we do, however, endeavor to replace such software with submissions under the more relaxed BSD copyright whenever possible. The FreeBSD Development Model Contributed by &a.asami;. The development of FreeBSD is a very open and flexible process, FreeBSD being literally built from the contributions of hundreds of people around the world, as can be seen from our . We are constantly on the lookout for new developers and ideas, and those interested in becoming more closely involved with the project need simply contact us at the &a.hackers;. Those who prefer to work more independently are also accommodated, and they are free to use our FTP facilities at ftp.freebsd.org to distribute their own patches or work-in-progress sources. The &a.announce; is also available to those wishing to make other FreeBSD users aware of major areas of work. Useful things to know about the FreeBSD project and its development process, whether working independently or in close cooperation: The CVS repository The central source tree for FreeBSD is maintained by CVS (Concurrent Version System), a freely available source code control tool which comes bundled with FreeBSD. The primary CVS repository resides on a machine in Concord CA, USA from where it is replicated to numerous mirror machines throughout the world. The CVS tree, as well as the and trees which are checked out of it, can be easily replicated to your own machine as well. Please refer to the section for more information on doing this. The committers list The are the people who have write access to the CVS tree, and are thus authorized to make modifications to the FreeBSD source (the term committer comes from the cvs1 commit command, which is used to bring new changes into the CVS repository). The best way of making submissions for review by the committers list is to use the send-pr1 command, though if something appears to be jammed in the system then you may also reach them by sending mail to committers@freebsd.org. The FreeBSD core team The would be equivalent to the board of directors if the FreeBSD Project were a company. The primary task of the core team is to make sure the project, as a whole, is in good shape and is heading in the right directions. Inviting dedicated and responsible developers to join our group of committers is one of the functions of the core team, as is the recruitment of new core team members as others move on. Most current members of the core team started as committers who's addiction to the project got the better of them. Some core team members also have specific , meaning that they are committed to ensuring that some large portion of the system works as advertised. Most members of the core team are volunteers when it comes to FreeBSD development and do not benefit from the project financially, so commitment should also not be misconstrued as meaning guaranteed support. The board of directors analogy above is not actually very accurate, and it may be more suitable to say that these are the people who gave up their lives in favor of FreeBSD against their better judgement! ;) Outside contributors Last, but definitely not least, the largest group of developers are the users themselves who provide feedback and bug-fixes to us on an almost constant basis. The primary way of keeping in touch with FreeBSD's more non-centralized development is to subscribe to the &a.hackers; (see ) where such things are discussed. of those who have contributed something which made its way into our source tree is a long and growing one, so why not join it by contributing something back to FreeBSD today? :-) Providing code is not the only way of contributing to the project; for a more complete list of things that need doing, please refer to the section in this handbook. In summary, our development model is organized as a loose set of concentric circles. The centralized model is designed for the convenience of the users of FreeBSD, who are thereby provided with an easy way of tracking one central code base, not to keep potential contributors out! Our desire is to present a stable operating system with a large set of coherent that the users can easily install and use, and this model works very well in accomplishing that. All we ask of those who would join us as FreeBSD developers is some of the same dedication its current people have to its continued success! About the Current Release FreeBSD is a freely available, full source 4.4BSD-Lite based release for Intel i386/i486/Pentium/PentiumPro/Pentium II (or compatible) based PC's. It is based primarily on software from U.C. Berkeley's CSRG group, with some enhancements from NetBSD, OpenBSD, 386BSD, and the Free Software Foundation. Since our release of FreeBSD 2.0 in January of 95, the performance, feature set, and stability of FreeBSD has improved dramatically. The largest change is a revamped virtual memory system with a merged VM/file buffer cache that not only increases performance, but reduces FreeBSD's memory footprint, making a 5MB configuration a more acceptable minimum. Other enhancements include full NIS client and server support, transaction TCP support, dial-on-demand PPP, an improved SCSI subsystem, early ISDN support, support for FDDI and Fast Ethernet (100Mbit) adapters, improved support for the Adaptec 2940 (WIDE and narrow) and many hundreds of bug fixes. We have also taken the comments and suggestions of many of our users to heart and have attempted to provide what we hope is a more sane and easily understood installation process. Your feedback on this (constantly evolving) process is especially welcome! In addition to the base distributions, FreeBSD offers a new ported software collection with hundreds of commonly sought-after programs. At the end of March 1998 there were more than 1300 ports! The list of ports ranges from http (WWW) servers, to games, languages, editors and almost everything in between. The entire ports collection requires approximately 26MB of storage, all ports being expressed as deltas to their original sources. This makes it much easier for us to update ports, and greatly reduces the disk space demands made by the older 1.0 ports collection. To compile a port, you simply change to the directory of the program you wish to install, type make all followed by make install after successful compilation and let the system do the rest. The full original distribution for each port you build is retrieved dynamically off the CDROM or a local ftp site, so you need only enough disk space to build the ports you want. (Almost) every port is also provided as a pre-compiled package which can be installed with a simple command (pkg_add) by those who do not wish to compile their own ports from source. A number of additional documents which you may find very helpful in the process of installing and using FreeBSD may now also be found in the /usr/share/doc directory on any machine running FreeBSD 2.1 or later. You may view the locally installed manuals with any HTML capable browser using the following URLs: The FreeBSD handbook file:/usr/share/doc/handbook/handbook.html The FreeBSD FAQ file:/usr/share/doc/FAQ/FAQ.html You can also visit the master (and most frequently updated) copies at http://www.freebsd.org. The core of FreeBSD does not contain DES code which would inhibit its being exported outside the United States. There is an add-on package to the core distribution, for use only in the United States, that contains the programs that normally use DES. The auxiliary packages provided separately can be used by anyone. A freely (from outside the U.S.) exportable European distribution of DES for our non-U.S. users also exists and is described in the FreeBSD FAQ. If password security for FreeBSD is all you need, and you have no requirement for copying encrypted passwords from different hosts (Suns, DEC machines, etc) into FreeBSD password entries, then FreeBSD's MD5 based security may be all you require! We feel that our default security model is more than a match for DES, and without any messy export issues to deal with. If you are outside (or even inside) the U.S., give it a try! Installing FreeBSD So, you would like to try out FreeBSD on your system? This section is a quick-start guide for what you need to do. FreeBSD can be installed from a variety of media including CD-ROM, floppy disk, magnetic tape, an MS-DOS partition and, if you have a network connection, via anonymous ftp or NFS. Regardless of the installation media you choose, you can get started by creating the installation disk as described below. Booting your computer into the FreeBSD installer, even if you aren't planning on installing FreeBSD right away, will provide important information about compatibility between FreeBSD and your hardware which may, in turn, dictate which installation options are even possible. It can also provide early clues to any compatibility problems which could prevent FreeBSD running on your system at all. If you plan on installing via anonymous FTP then this installation disk is all you need to download (the installation will handle any further required downloading itself). For more information on obtaining the latest FreeBSD distributions, please see in the Appendix. So, to get the show on the road, follow these steps: Review the section of this installation guide to be sure that your hardware is supported by FreeBSD. It may be helpful to make a list of any special cards you have installed, such as SCSI controllers, Ethernet adapters or sound cards. This list should include relevant configuration parameters such as interrupts (IRQ) and IO port addresses. If you're installing FreeBSD from CDROM media then you have several different installation options: If the CD has been mastered with El Torrito boot support and your system supports direct booting from CDROM (and many older systems do not), simply insert the CD into the drive and boot directly from it. If you're running DOS and have the proper drivers to access your CD, run the install.bat script provided on the CD. This will attempt to boot into the FreeBSD installation straight from DOS. You must do this from actual DOS and not a Windows DOS box. If you also want to install FreeBSD from your DOS partition (perhaps because your CDROM drive is completely unsupported by FreeBSD) then run the setup program first to copy the appropriate files from the CD to your DOS partition, afterwards running install. If either of the two proceeding methods work then you can simply skip the rest of this section, otherwise your final option is to create a boot floppy from the floppies\boot.flp image—proceed to step 4 for instructions on how to do this. If you don't have a CDROM distribution then simply download the installation boot disk image file to your hard drive, being sure to tell your browser to save rather than display the file. This disk image can only be used with 1.44 megabyte 3.5 inch floppy disks. Make the installation boot disk from the image file: If you are using MS-DOS then download fdimage.exe or get it from tools\fdimage.exe on the CDROM and then run it like so: E:\> tools\fdimage floppies\boot.flp a: The fdimage program will format the A: drive and then copy the boot.flp image onto it (assuming that you're at the top level of a FreeBSD distribution and the floppy images live in the floppies subdirectory, as is typically the case). If you are using a UNIX system to create the floppy image: &prompt.root; dd if=boot.flp of=disk_device where disk_device is the /dev entry for the floppy drive. On FreeBSD systems, this is /dev/rfd0 for the A: drive and /dev/rfd1 for the B: drive. With the installation disk in the A: drive, reboot your computer. You should get a boot prompt something like this: >> FreeBSD BOOT ... Usage: [[[0:][wd](0,a)]/kernel][-abcCdhrsv] Use 1:sd(0,a)kernel to boot sd0 if it is BIOS drive 1 Use ? for file list or press Enter for defaults Boot: If you do not type anything, FreeBSD will automatically boot with its default configuration after a delay of about five seconds. As FreeBSD boots, it probes your computer to determine what hardware is installed. The results of this probing is displayed on the screen. When the booting process is finished, The main FreeBSD installation menu will be displayed. If something goes wrong... Due to limitations of the PC architecture, it is impossible for probing to be 100 percent reliable. In the event that your hardware is incorrectly identified, or that the probing causes your computer to lock up, first check the section of this installation guide to be sure that your hardware is indeed supported by FreeBSD. If your hardware is supported, reset the computer and when the Boot: prompt comes up, type -c. This puts FreeBSD into a configuration mode where you can supply hints about your hardware. The FreeBSD kernel on the installation disk is configured assuming that most hardware devices are in their factory default configuration in terms of IRQs, IO addresses and DMA channels. If your hardware has been reconfigured, you will most likely need to use the option at boot to tell FreeBSD where things are. It is also possible that a probe for a device not present will cause a later probe for another device that is present to fail. In that case, the probes for the conflicting driver(s) should be disabled. In the configuration mode, you can: List the device drivers installed in the kernel. Disable device drivers for hardware not present in your system. Change the IRQ, DRQ, and IO port addresses used by a device driver. While at the config> prompt, type help for more information on the available commands. After adjusting the kernel to match how you have your hardware configured, type quit at the config> prompt to continue booting with the new settings. After FreeBSD has been installed, changes made in the configuration mode will be permanent so you do not have to reconfigure every time you boot. Even so, it is likely that you will want to build a custom kernel to optimize the performance of your system. See for more information on creating custom kernels. Supported Configurations FreeBSD currently runs on a wide variety of ISA, VLB, EISA and PCI bus based PC's, ranging from 386sx to Pentium class machines (though the 386sx is not recommended). Support for generic IDE or ESDI drive configurations, various SCSI controller, network and serial cards is also provided. A minimum of four megabytes of RAM is required to run FreeBSD. To run the X Window System, eight megabytes of RAM is the recommended minimum. Following is a list of all disk controllers and Ethernet cards currently known to work with FreeBSD. Other configurations may very well work, and we have simply not received any indication of this. Disk Controllers WD1003 (any generic MFM/RLL) WD1007 (any generic IDE/ESDI) IDE ATA Adaptec 1505 ISA SCSI controller Adaptec 152x series ISA SCSI controllers Adaptec 1535 ISA SCSI controllers Adaptec 154x series ISA SCSI controllers Adaptec 174x series EISA SCSI controller in standard and enhanced mode. Adaptec 274x/284x/2940/2940U/3940 (Narrow/Wide/Twin) series EISA/VLB/PCI SCSI controllers Adaptec AIC7850 on-board SCSI controllers Adaptec AIC-6360 based boards, which includes the AHA-152x and SoundBlaster SCSI cards. You cannot boot from the SoundBlaster cards as they have no on-board BIOS, which is necessary for mapping the boot device into the system BIOS I/O vectors. They are perfectly usable for external tapes, CDROMs, etc, however. The same goes for any other AIC-6x60 based card without a boot ROM. Some systems DO have a boot ROM, which is generally indicated by some sort of message when the system is first powered up or reset. Check your system/board documentation for more details. Buslogic 545S & 545c Buslogic was formerly known as Bustek. Buslogic 445S/445c VLB SCSI controller Buslogic 742A/747S/747c EISA SCSI controller. Buslogic 946c PCI SCSI controller Buslogic 956c PCI SCSI controller NCR 53C810/53C815/53C825/53C860/53C875 PCI SCSI controller. NCR5380/NCR53400 (ProAudio Spectrum) SCSI controller. DTC 3290 EISA SCSI controller in 1542 emulation mode. UltraStor 14F/24F/34F SCSI controllers. Seagate ST01/02 SCSI controllers. Future Domain 8xx/950 series SCSI controllers. WD7000 SCSI controllers. With all supported SCSI controllers, full support is provided for SCSI-I & SCSI-II peripherals, including Disks, tape drives (including DAT) and CD ROM drives. The following CD-ROM type systems are supported at this time: SoundBlaster SCSI and ProAudio Spectrum SCSI (cd) Mitsumi (all models) proprietary interface (mcd) Matsushita/Panasonic (Creative) CR-562/CR-563 proprietary interface (matcd) Sony proprietary interface (scd) ATAPI IDE interface (experimental and should be considered ALPHA quality!) (wcd) Ethernet cards Allied-Telesis AT1700 and RE2000 cards SMC Elite 16 WD8013 Ethernet interface, and most other WD8003E, WD8003EBT, WD8003W, WD8013W, WD8003S, WD8003SBT and WD8013EBT based clones. SMC Elite Ultra and 9432TX based cards are also supported. DEC EtherWORKS III NICs (DE203, DE204, and DE205) DEC EtherWORKS II NICs (DE200, DE201, DE202, and DE422) DEC DC21040/DC21041/DC21140 based NICs: ASUS PCI-L101-TB Accton ENI1203 Cogent EM960PCI Compex CPXPCI/32C D-Link DE-530 DEC DE435 Danpex EN-9400P3 JCIS Condor JC1260 Kingston KNE100TX Linksys EtherPCI Mylex LNP101 SMC EtherPower 10/100 (Model 9332) SMC EtherPower (Model 8432) SMC EtherPower (2) Zynx ZX314 Zynx ZX342 DEC FDDI (DEFPA/DEFEA) NICs Fujitsu FMV-181 and FMV-182 Fujitsu MB86960A/MB86965A Intel EtherExpress Intel EtherExpress Pro/100B 100Mbit. Isolan AT 4141-0 (16 bit) Isolink 4110 (8 bit) Lucent WaveLAN wireless networking interface. Novell NE1000, NE2000, and NE2100 ethernet interface. 3Com 3C501 cards 3Com 3C503 Etherlink II 3Com 3c505 Etherlink/+ 3Com 3C507 Etherlink 16/TP 3Com 3C509, 3C579, 3C589 (PCMCIA) Etherlink III 3Com 3C590, 3C595 Etherlink III 3Com 3C90x cards. HP PC Lan Plus (27247B and 27252A) Toshiba ethernet cards PCMCIA ethernet cards from IBM and National Semiconductor are also supported. FreeBSD does not currently support PnP (plug-n-play) features present on some ethernet cards. If your card has PnP and is giving you problems, try disabling its PnP features. Miscellaneous devices AST 4 port serial card using shared IRQ. ARNET 8 port serial card using shared IRQ. BOCA IOAT66 6 port serial card using shared IRQ. BOCA 2016 16 port serial card using shared IRQ. Cyclades Cyclom-y Serial Board. STB 4 port card using shared IRQ. SDL Communications Riscom/8 Serial Board. SDL Communications RISCom/N2 and N2pci sync serial cards. Digiboard Sync/570i high-speed sync serial card. Decision-Computer Intl. Eight-Serial 8 port serial cards using shared IRQ. Adlib, SoundBlaster, SoundBlaster Pro, ProAudioSpectrum, Gravis UltraSound, Gravis UltraSound MAX and Roland MPU-401 sound cards. Matrox Meteor video frame grabber. Creative Labs Video spigot frame grabber. Omnimedia Talisman frame grabber. Brooktree BT848 chip based frame grabbers. X-10 power controllers. PC joystick and speaker. FreeBSD does not currently support IBM's microchannel (MCA) bus. Preparing for the Installation There are a number of different methods by which FreeBSD can be installed. The following describes what preparation needs to be done for each type. Before installing from CDROM If your CDROM is of an unsupported type, then please skip to . There is not a lot of preparatory work that needs to be done to successfully install from one of Walnut Creek's FreeBSD CDROMs (other CDROM distributions may work as well, though we cannot say for certain as we have no hand or say in how they are created). You can either boot into the CD installation directly from DOS using Walnut Creek's supplied install.bat batch file or you can make a boot floppy with the makeflp.bat command. If you are running FreeBSD 2.1-RELEASE and have an IDE CDROM, use the inst_ide.bat or atapiflp.bat batch files instead. For the easiest interface of all (from DOS), type view. This will bring up a DOS menu utility that leads you through all the available options. If you are creating the boot floppy from a UNIX machine, see for examples. of how to create the boot floppy. Once you have booted from DOS or floppy, you should then be able to select CDROM as the media type in the Media menu and load the entire distribution from CDROM. No other types of installation media should be required. After your system is fully installed and you have rebooted from the hard disk, you can mount the CDROM at any time by typing: mount /cdrom Before removing the CD again, also note that it is necessary to first type: umount /cdrom. Do not just remove it from the drive! Before invoking the installation, be sure that the CDROM is in the drive so that the install probe can find it. This is also true if you wish the CDROM to be added to the default system configuration automatically during the install (whether or not you actually use it as the installation media). Finally, if you would like people to be able to FTP install FreeBSD directly from the CDROM in your machine, you will find it quite easy. After the machine is fully installed, you simply need to add the following line to the password file (using the vipw command): ftp:*:99:99::0:0:FTP:/cdrom:/nonexistent Anyone with network connectivity to your machine (and permission to log into it) can now chose a Media type of FTP and type in: ftp://your machine after picking Other in the ftp sites menu. Before installing from Floppy If you must install from floppy disks, either due to unsupported hardware or simply because you enjoy doing things the hard way, you must first prepare some floppies for the install. You will need, at minimum, as many 1.44MB or 1.2MB floppies as it takes to hold all files in the bin (binary distribution) directory. If you are preparing these floppies under DOS, then THESE floppies must be formatted using the MS-DOS FORMAT command. If you are using Windows, use the Windows File Manager format command. Do not trust Factory Preformatted floppies! Format them again yourself, just to make sure. Many problems reported by our users in the past have resulted from the use of improperly formatted media, which is why I am taking such special care to mention it here! If you are creating the floppies from another FreeBSD machine, a format is still not a bad idea though you do not need to put a DOS filesystem on each floppy. You can use the disklabel and newfs commands to put a UFS filesystem on them instead, as the following sequence of commands (for a 3.5" 1.44MB floppy disk) illustrates: &prompt.root; fdformat -f 1440 fd0.1440 &prompt.root; disklabel -w -r fd0.1440 floppy3 &prompt.root; newfs -t 2 -u 18 -l 1 -i 65536 /dev/rfd0 Use fd0.1200 and floppy5 for 5.25" 1.2MB disks. Then you can mount and write to them like any other file system. After you have formatted the floppies, you will need to copy the files onto them. The distribution files are split into chunks conveniently sized so that 5 of them will fit on a conventional 1.44MB floppy. Go through all your floppies, packing as many files as will fit on each one, until you have got all the distributions you want packed up in this fashion. Each distribution should go into a subdirectory on the floppy, e.g.: a:\bin\bin.aa, a:\bin\bin.ab, and so on. Once you come to the Media screen of the install, select Floppy and you will be prompted for the rest. Before installing from a MS-DOS partition To prepare for installation from an MS-DOS partition, copy the files from the distribution into a directory called C:\FREEBSD. The directory tree structure of the CDROM must be partially reproduced within this directory so we suggest using the DOS xcopy command. For example, to prepare for a minimal installation of FreeBSD: C:\> MD C:\FREEBSD C:\> XCOPY /S E:\BIN C:\FREEBSD\BIN\ C:\> XCOPY /S E:\MANPAGES C:\FREEBSD\MANPAGES\ assuming that C: is where you have free space and E: is where your CDROM is mounted. For as many DISTS you wish to install from MS-DOS (and you have free space for), install each one under C:\FREEBSD — the BIN dist is only the minimal requirement. Before installing from QIC/SCSI Tape Installing from tape is probably the easiest method, short of an on-line install using FTP or a CDROM install. The installation program expects the files to be simply tar'ed onto the tape, so after getting all of the files for distribution you are interested in, simply tar them onto the tape with a command like: &prompt.root; cd /freebsd/distdir &prompt.root; tar cvf /dev/rwt0 dist1 ... dist2 When you go to do the installation, you should also make sure that you leave enough room in some temporary directory (which you will be allowed to choose) to accommodate the full contents of the tape you have created. Due to the non-random access nature of tapes, this method of installation requires quite a bit of temporary storage. You should expect to require as much temporary storage as you have stuff written on tape. When going to do the installation, the tape must be in the drive before booting from the boot floppy. The installation probe may otherwise fail to find it. Before installing over a network You can do network installations over 3 types of communications links: Serial port SLIP or PPP Parallel port PLIP (laplink cable) Ethernet A standard ethernet controller (includes some PCMCIA). SLIP support is rather primitive, and limited primarily to hard-wired links, such as a serial cable running between a laptop computer and another computer. The link should be hard-wired as the SLIP installation does not currently offer a dialing capability; that facility is provided with the PPP utility, which should be used in preference to SLIP whenever possible. If you are using a modem, then PPP is almost certainly your only choice. Make sure that you have your service provider's information handy as you will need to know it fairly soon in the installation process. You will need to know how to dial your ISP using the AT commands specific to your modem, as the PPP dialer provides only a very simple terminal emulator. If you're using PAP or CHAP, you'll need to type the necessary set authname and set authkey commands before typing term. Refer to the user-ppp and FAQ entries for further information. If you have problems, logging can be directed to the screen using the command set log local .... If a hard-wired connection to another FreeBSD (2.0R or later) machine is available, you might also consider installing over a laplink parallel port cable. The data rate over the parallel port is much higher than what is typically possible over a serial line (up to 50k/sec), thus resulting in a quicker installation. Finally, for the fastest possible network installation, an ethernet adaptor is always a good choice! FreeBSD supports most common PC ethernet cards, a table of supported cards (and their required settings) is provided in . If you are using one of the supported PCMCIA ethernet cards, also be sure that it is plugged in before the laptop is powered on! FreeBSD does not, unfortunately, currently support hot insertion of PCMCIA cards during installation. You will also need to know your IP address on the network, the netmask value for your address class, and the name of your machine. Your system administrator can tell you which values to use for your particular network setup. If you will be referring to other hosts by name rather than IP address, you will also need a name server and possibly the address of a gateway (if you are using PPP, it is your provider's IP address) to use in talking to it. If you do not know the answers to all or most of these questions, then you should really probably talk to your system administrator first before trying this type of installation. Once you have a network link of some sort working, the installation can continue over NFS or FTP. Preparing for NFS installation NFS installation is fairly straight-forward: Simply copy the FreeBSD distribution files you want onto a server somewhere and then point the NFS media selection at it. If this server supports only privileged port access (as is generally the default for Sun workstations), you will need to set this option in the Options menu before installation can proceed. If you have a poor quality ethernet card which suffers from very slow transfer rates, you may also wish to toggle the appropriate Options flag. In order for NFS installation to work, the server must support subdir mounts, e.g., if your FreeBSD &rel.current; distribution directory lives on: ziggy:/usr/archive/stuff/FreeBSD Then ziggy will have to allow the direct mounting of /usr/archive/stuff/FreeBSD, not just /usr or /usr/archive/stuff. In FreeBSD's /etc/exports file, this is controlled by the option. Other NFS servers may have different conventions. If you are getting Permission Denied messages from the server then it is likely that you do not have this enabled properly. Preparing for FTP Installation FTP installation may be done from any mirror site containing a reasonably up-to-date version of FreeBSD &rel.current;. A full menu of reasonable choices from almost anywhere in the world is provided by the FTP site menu. If you are installing from some other FTP site not listed in this menu, or you are having troubles getting your name server configured properly, you can also specify your own URL by selecting the Other choice in that menu. A URL can also be a direct IP address, so the following would work in the absence of a name server: ftp://165.113.121.81/pub/FreeBSD/&rel.current;-RELEASE There are two FTP installation modes you can use: FTP Active For all FTP transfers, use Active mode. This will not work through firewalls, but will often work with older ftp servers that do not support passive mode. If your connection hangs with passive mode (the default), try active! FTP Passive For all FTP transfers, use Passive mode. This allows the user to pass through firewalls that do not allow incoming connections on random port addresses. Active and passive modes are not the same as a proxy connection, where a proxy FTP server is listening and forwarding FTP requests! For a proxy FTP server, you should usually give name of the server you really want as a part of the username, after an @-sign. The proxy server then 'fakes' the real server. An example: Say you want to install from ftp.freebsd.org, using the proxy FTP server foo.bar.com, listening on port 1234. In this case, you go to the options menu, set the FTP username to ftp@ftp.freebsd.org, and the password to your e-mail address. As your installation media, you specify FTP (or passive FTP, if the proxy support it), and the URL ftp://foo.bar.com:1234/pub/FreeBSD /pub/FreeBSD from ftp.freebsd.org is proxied under foo.bar.com, allowing you to install from _that_ machine (which fetch the files from ftp.freebsd.org as your installation requests them). Installing FreeBSD Once you have taken note of the appropriate preinstallation steps, you should be able to install FreeBSD without any further trouble. Should this not be true, then you may wish to go back and re-read the relevant preparation section above for the installation media type you are trying to use, perhaps there is a helpful hint there that you missed the first time? If you are having hardware trouble, or FreeBSD refuses to boot at all, read the Hardware Guide provided on the boot floppy for a list of possible solutions. The FreeBSD boot floppy contains all the on-line documentation you should need to be able to navigate through an installation and if it does not then we would like to know what you found most confusing. Send your comments to the &a.doc;. It is the objective of the FreeBSD installation program (sysinstall) to be self-documenting enough that painful step-by-step guides are no longer necessary. It may take us a little while to reach that objective, but that is the objective! Meanwhile, you may also find the following typical installation sequence to be helpful: Boot the boot floppy. After a boot sequence which can take anywhere from 30 seconds to 3 minutes, depending on your hardware, you should be presented with a menu of initial choices. If the floppy does not boot at all, or the boot hangs at some stage, go read the Q&A section of the Hardware Guide for possible causes. Press F1. You should see some basic usage instructions on the menu system and general navigation. If you have not used this menu system before then please read this thoroughly! Select the Options item and set any special preferences you may have. Select a Novice, Custom or Express install, depending on whether or not you would like the installation to help you through a typical installation, give you a high degree of control over each step of the installation or simply whizz through it (using reasonable defaults when possible) as fast as possible. If you have never used FreeBSD before then the Novice installation method is most recommended. The final configuration menu choice allows you to further configure your FreeBSD installation by giving you menu-driven access to various system defaults. Some items, like networking, may be especially important if you did a CDROM/Tape/Floppy installation and have not yet configured your network interfaces (assuming you have any). Properly configuring such interfaces here will allow FreeBSD to come up on the network when you first reboot from the hard disk. MS-DOS User's Questions and Answers Many FreeBSD users wish to install FreeBSD on PCs inhabited by MS-DOS. Here are some commonly asked questions about installing FreeBSD on such systems. Help! I have no space! Do I need to delete everything first? If your machine is already running MS-DOS and has little or no free space available for FreeBSD's installation, all is not lost! You may find the FIPS utility, provided in the tools directory on the FreeBSD CDROM or on the various FreeBSD ftp sites, to be quite useful. FIPS allows you to split an existing MS-DOS partition into two pieces, preserving the original partition and allowing you to install onto the second free piece. You first defragment your MS-DOS partition, using the DOS 6.xx DEFRAG utility or the Norton Disk tools, then run FIPS. It will prompt you for the rest of the information it needs. Afterwards, you can reboot and install FreeBSD on the new free slice. See the Distributions menu for an estimation of how much free space you will need for the kind of installation you want. Can I use compressed MS-DOS filesystems from FreeBSD? No. If you are using a utility such as Stacker(tm) or DoubleSpace(tm), FreeBSD will only be able to use whatever portion of the filesystem you leave uncompressed. The rest of the filesystem will show up as one large file (the stacked/dblspaced file!). Do not remove that file! You will probably regret it greatly! It is probably better to create another uncompressed MS-DOS primary partition and use this for communications between MS-DOS and FreeBSD. Can I mount my MS-DOS extended partitions? Yes. DOS extended partitions are mapped in at the end of the other slices in FreeBSD, e.g. your D: drive might be /dev/sd0s5, your E: drive /dev/sd0s6, and so on. This example assumes, of course, that your extended partition is on SCSI drive 0. For IDE drives, substitute wd for sd appropriately. You otherwise mount extended partitions exactly like you would mount any other DOS drive, e.g.: &prompt.root; mount -t msdos /dev/sd0s5 /dos_d Can I run MS-DOS binaries under FreeBSD? BSDI has donated their DOS emulator to the BSD world and this has been ported to FreeBSD. There is also a (technically) nice application available in the called pcemu which allows you to run many basic MS-DOS text-mode binaries by entirely emulating an 8088 CPU. Unix Basics The Online Manual The most comprehensive documentation on FreeBSD is in the form of man pages. Nearly every program on the system comes with a short reference manual explaining the basic operation and various arguments. These manuals can be view with the man command. Use of the man command is simple: &prompt.user; man command where command is the name of the command you wish to learn about. For example, to learn more about ls command type: &prompt.user; man ls The online manual is divided up into numbered sections: User commands System calls and error numbers Functions in the C libraries Device drivers File formats Games and other diversions Miscellaneous information System maintenance and operation commands In some cases, the same topic may appear in more than one section of the on-line manual. For example, there is a chmod user command and a chmod() system call. In this case, you can tell the man command which one you want by specifying the section: &prompt.user; man 1 chmod which will display the manual page for the user command chmod. References to a particular section of the on-line manual are traditionally placed in parenthesis in written documentation, so chmod1 refers to the chmod user command and chmod2 refers to the system call. This is fine if you know the name of the command and simply wish to know how to use it, but what if you cannot recall the command name? You can use man to search for keywords in the command descriptions by using the switch: &prompt.user; man -k mail With this command you will be presented with a list of commands that have the keyword mail in their descriptions. This is actually functionally equivalent to using the apropos command. So, you are looking at all those fancy commands in /usr/bin but do not even have the faintest idea what most of them actually do? Simply do a &prompt.user; cd /usr/bin; man -f * or &prompt.user; cd /usr/bin; whatis * which does the same thing. GNU Info Files FreeBSD includes many applications and utilities produced by the Free Software Foundation (FSF). In addition to man pages, these programs come with more extensive hypertext documents called info files which can be viewed with the info command or, if you installed emacs, the info mode of emacs. To use the info1 command, simply type: &prompt.user; info For a brief introduction, type h. For a quick command reference, type ?. Installing Applications: The Ports collection Contributed by &a.jraynard;. The FreeBSD Ports collection allows you to compile and install a very wide range of applications with a minimum of effort. For all the hype about open standards, getting a program to work on different versions of Unix in the real world can be a tedious and tricky business, as anyone who has tried it will know. You may be lucky enough to find that the program you want will compile cleanly on your system, install itself in all the right places and run flawlessly out of the box, but this is unfortunately rather rare. With most programs, you will find yourself doing a fair bit of head-scratching, and there are quite a few programs that will result in premature greying, or even chronic alopecia... Some software distributions have attacked this problem by providing configuration scripts. Some of these are very clever, but they have an unfortunate tendency to triumphantly announce that your system is something you have never heard of and then ask you lots of questions that sound like a final exam in system-level Unix programming (Does your system's gethitlist function return a const pointer to a fromboz or a pointer to a const fromboz? Do you have Foonix style unacceptable exception handling? And if not, why not?). Fortunately, with the Ports collection, all the hard work involved has already been done, and you can just type make install and get a working program. Why Have a Ports Collection? The base FreeBSD system comes with a very wide range of tools and system utilities, but a lot of popular programs are not in the base system, for good reasons:- Programs that some people cannot live without and other people cannot stand, such as a certain Lisp-based editor. Programs which are too specialised to put in the base system (CAD, databases). Programs which fall into the I must have a look at that when I get a spare minute category, rather than system-critical ones (some languages, perhaps). Programs that are far too much fun to be supplied with a serious operating system like FreeBSD ;-) However many programs you put in the base system, people will always want more, and a line has to be drawn somewhere (otherwise FreeBSD distributions would become absolutely enormous). Obviously it would be unreasonable to expect everyone to port their favourite programs by hand (not to mention a tremendous amount of duplicated work), so the FreeBSD Project came up with an ingenious way of using standard tools that would automate the process. Incidentally, this is an excellent illustration of how the Unix way works in practice by combining a set of simple but very flexible tools into something very powerful. How Does the Ports Collection Work? Programs are typically distributed on the Internet as a consisting of a Makefile and the source code for the program and usually some instructions (which are unfortunately not always as instructive as they could be), with perhaps a configuration script. The standard scenario is that you FTP down the tarball, extract it somewhere, glance through the instructions, make any changes that seem necessary, run the configure script to set things up and use the standard make program to compile and install the program from the source. FreeBSD ports still use the tarball mechanism, but use a to hold the "knowledge" of how to get the program working on FreeBSD, rather than expecting the user to be able to work it out. They also supply their own customised , so that almost every port can be built in the same way. If you look at a port skeleton (either on your FreeBSD system or the FTP site) and expect to find all sorts of pointy-headed rocket science lurking there, you may be disappointed by the one or two rather unexciting-looking files and directories you find there. (We will discuss in a minute how to go about ). How on earth can this do anything? I hear you cry. There is no source code there! Fear not, gentle reader, all will become clear (hopefully). Let's see what happens if we try and install a port. I have chosen ElectricFence, a useful tool for developers, as the skeleton is more straightforward than most. If you are trying this at home, you will need to be root. &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/devel/ElectricFence &prompt.root; make install >> Checksum OK for ElectricFence-2.0.5.tar.gz. ===> Extracting for ElectricFence-2.0.5 ===> Patching for ElectricFence-2.0.5 ===> Applying FreeBSD patches for ElectricFence-2.0.5 ===> Configuring for ElectricFence-2.0.5 ===> Building for ElectricFence-2.0.5 [lots of compiler output...] ===> Installing for ElectricFence-2.0.5 ===> Warning: your umask is "0002". If this is not desired, set it to an appropriate value and install this port again by ``make reinstall''. install -c -o bin -g bin -m 444 /usr/ports/devel/ElectricFence/work/ElectricFence-2.0.5/libefence.a /usr/local/lib install -c -o bin -g bin -m 444 /usr/ports/devel/ElectricFence/work/ElectricFence-2.0.5/libefence.3 /usr/local/man/man3 ===> Compressing manual pages for ElectricFence-2.0.5 ===> Registering installation for ElectricFence-2.0.5 To avoid confusing the issue, I have completely removed the build output. If you tried this yourself, you may well have got something like this at the start:- &prompt.root; make install >> ElectricFence-2.0.5.tar.gz doesn't seem to exist on this system. >> Attempting to fetch from ftp://ftp.doc.ic.ac.uk/Mirrors/sunsite.unc.edu/pub/Linux/devel/lang/c/. The make program has noticed that you did not have a local copy of the source code and tried to FTP it down so it could get the job done. I already had the source handy in my example, so it did not need to fetch it. Let's go through this and see what the make program was doing. Locate the source code If it is not available locally, try to grab it from an FTP site. Run a test on the tarball to make sure it has not been tampered with, accidentally truncated, downloaded in ASCII mode, struck by neutrinos while in transit, etc. Extract the tarball into a temporary work directory. Apply any needed to get the source to compile and run under FreeBSD. Run any configuration script required by the build process and correctly answer any questions it asks. (Finally!) Compile the code. Install the program executable and other supporting files, man pages, etc. under the /usr/local hierarchy, where they will not get mixed up with system programs. This also makes sure that all the ports you install will go in the same place, instead of being flung all over your system. Register the installation in a database. This means that, if you do not like the program, you can cleanly all traces of it from your system. Scroll up to the make output and see if you can match these steps to it. And if you were not impressed before, you should be by now! Getting a FreeBSD Port There are two ways of getting hold of the FreeBSD port for a program. One requires a , the other involves using an Compiling ports from CDROM If you answered yes to the question Do you want to link the ports collection to your CDROM during the FreeBSD installation, the initial setting up will already have been done for you. If not, make sure the FreeBSD CDROM is in the drive and mounted on, say, /cdrom. Then do &prompt.root; mkdir /usr/ports &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; ln -s /cdrom/ports/distfiles distfiles to enable the ports make mechanism to find the tarballs (it expects to find them in /usr/ports/distfiles, which is why we sym-linked the CDROM's tarball directory to that directory). Now, suppose you want to install the gnats program from the databases directory. Here is how to do it:- &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; mkdir databases &prompt.root; cp -R /cdrom/ports/databases/gnats databases &prompt.root; cd databases/gnats &prompt.root; make install Or if you are a serious database user and you want to compare all the ones available in the Ports collection, do &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; cp -R /cdrom/ports/databases . &prompt.root; cd databases &prompt.root; make install (yes, that really is a dot on its own after the cp command and not a mistake. It is Unix-ese for the current directory) and the ports make mechanism will automatically compile and install all the ports in the databases directory for you! If you do not like this method, here is a completely different way of doing it:- Create a link tree to it using the lndir1 command that comes with the XFree86 distribution. Find a location with some free space, create a directory there and then cd to it. Then invoke the lndir1 command with the full pathname of the ports directory on the CDROM as the first argument and . (the current directory) as the second. This might be, for example, something like: &prompt.root; lndir /cdrom/ports . Then you can build ports directly off the CDROM by building them in the link tree you have created. Note that there are some ports for which we cannot provide the original source in the CDROM due to licensing limitations. In that case, you will need to look at the section on Compiling ports from the Internet If you do not have a CDROM, or you want to make sure you get the very latest version of the port you want, you will need to download the for the port. Now this might sound like rather a fiddly job full of pitfalls, but it is actually very easy. The key to it is that the FreeBSD FTP server can create on-the-fly for you. Here is how it works, with the gnats program in the databases directory as an example (the bits in square brackets are comments. Do not type them in if you are trying this yourself!):- &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; mkdir databases &prompt.root; cd databases &prompt.root; ftp ftp.freebsd.org [log in as `ftp' and give your email address when asked for a password. Remember to use binary (also known as image) mode!] > cd /pub/FreeBSD/ports/databases > get gnats.tar [tars up the gnats skeleton for us] > quit &prompt.root; tar xf gnats.tar [extract the gnats skeleton] &prompt.root; cd gnats &prompt.root; make install [build and install gnats] What happened here? We connected to the FTP server in the usual way and went to its databases sub-directory. When we gave it the command get gnats.tar, the FTP server up the gnats directory for us. We then extracted the gnats skeleton and went into the gnats directory to build the port. As we explained , the make process noticed we did not have a copy of the source locally, so it fetched one before extracting, patching and building it. Let's try something more ambitious now. Instead of getting a single port skeleton, let's get a whole sub-directory, for example all the database skeletons in the ports collection. It looks almost the same:- &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; ftp ftp.freebsd.org [log in as `ftp' and give your email address when asked for a password. Remember to use binary (also known as image) mode!] > cd /pub/FreeBSD/ports > get databases.tar [tars up the databases directory for us] > quit &prompt.root; tar xf databases.tar [extract all the database skeletons] &prompt.root; cd databases &prompt.root; make install [build and install all the database ports] With half a dozen straightforward commands, we have now got a set of database programs on our FreeBSD machine! All we did that was different from getting a single port skeleton and building it was that we got a whole directory at once, and compiled everything in it at once. Pretty impressive, no? If you expect to be installing many ports, it is probably worth downloading all the ports directories. Skeletons A team of compulsive hackers who have forgotten to eat in a frantic attempt to make a deadline? Something unpleasant lurking in the FreeBSD attic? No, a skeleton here is a minimal framework that supplies everything needed to make the ports magic work. <filename>Makefile</filename> The most important component of a skeleton is the Makefile. This contains various statements that specify how the port should be compiled and installed. Here is the Makefile for ElectricFence:- # New ports collection makefile for: Electric Fence # Version required: 2.0.5 # Date created: 13 November 1997 # Whom: jraynard # # $Id$ # DISTNAME= ElectricFence-2.0.5 CATEGORIES= devel MASTER_SITES= ${MASTER_SITE_SUNSITE} MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR= devel/lang/c MAINTAINER= jraynard@freebsd.org MAN3= libefence.3 do-install: ${INSTALL_DATA} ${WRKSRC}/libefence.a ${PREFIX}/lib ${INSTALL_MAN} ${WRKSRC}/libefence.3 ${PREFIX}/man/man3 .include <bsd.port.mk> The lines beginning with a "#" sign are comments for the benefit of human readers (as in most Unix script files). DISTNAME specifies the name of the , but without the extension. CATEGORIES states what kind of program this is. In this case, a utility for developers. MASTER_SITES is the URL(s) of the master FTP site, which is used to retrieve the if it is not available on the local system. This is a site which is regarded as reputable, and is normally the one from which the program is officially distributed (in so far as any software is "officially" distributed on the Internet). MAINTAINER is the email address of the person who is responsible for updating the skeleton if, for example a new version of the program comes out. Skipping over the next few lines for a minute, the line .include <bsd.port.mk> says that the other statements and commands needed for this port are in a standard file called bsd.port.mk. As these are the same for all ports, there is no point in duplicating them all over the place, so they are kept in a single standard file. This is probably not the place to go into a detailed examination of how Makefiles work; suffice it to say that the line starting with MAN3 ensures that the ElectricFence man page is compressed after installation, to help conserve your precious disk space. The original port did not provide an install target, so the three lines from do-install ensure that the files produced by this port are placed in the correct destination. The <filename>files</filename> directory The file containing the for the port is called md5, after the MD5 algorithm used for ports checksums. It lives in a directory with the slightly confusing name of files. This directory can also contain other miscellaneous files that are required by the port and do not belong anywhere else. The <filename>patches</filename> directory This directory contains the needed to make everything work properly under FreeBSD. The <filename>pkg</filename> directory This program contains three quite useful files:- COMMENT — a one-line description of the program. DESCR — a more detailed description. PLIST — a list of all the files that will be created when the program is installed. What to do when a port does not work. Oh. You can do one of four (4) things : Fix it yourself. Technical details on how ports work can be found in Gripe. This is done by e-mail only! Send such e-mail to the &a.ports; and please include the name/version of the port, where you got both the port source & distfile(s) from, and what the text of the error was. Forget it. This is the easiest for most — very few of the programs in ports can be classified as essential! Grab the pre-compiled package from a ftp server. The master package collection is on FreeBSD's FTP server in the packages directory, though check your local mirror first, please! These are more likely to work (on the whole) than trying to compile from source and a lot faster besides! Use the pkg_add1 program to install a package file on your system. I Want to Make a Port! Great! Please see the for detailed instructions on how to do this. Some Questions and Answers Q. I thought this was going to be a discussion about modems??! A. Ah. You must be thinking of the serial ports on the back of your computer. We are using port here to mean the result of porting a program from one version of Unix to another. (It is an unfortunate bad habit of computer people to use the same word to refer to several completely different things). Q. I thought you were supposed to use packages to install extra programs? A. Yes, that is usually the quickest and easiest way of doing it. Q. So why bother with ports then? A. Several reasons:- The licensing conditions on some software distributions require that they be distributed as source code, not binaries. Some people do not trust binary distributions. At least with source code you can (in theory) read through it and look for potential problems yourself. If you have some local patches, you will need the source to add them yourself. You might have opinions on how a program should be compiled that differ from the person who did the package — some people have strong views on what optimisation setting should be used, whether to build debug versions and then strip them or not, etc. etc. Some people like having code around, so they can read it if they get bored, hack around with it, borrow from it (licence terms permitting, of course!) and so on. If you ain't got the source, it ain't software! ;-) Q. What is a patch? A. A patch is a small (usually) file that specifies how to go from one version of a file to another. It contains text that says, in effect, things like delete line 23, add these two lines after line 468 or change line 197 to this. Also known as a diff, since it is generated by a program of that name. Q. What is all this about tarballs? A. It is a file ending in .tar or .tar.gz (with variations like .tar.Z, or even .tgz if you are trying to squeeze the names into a DOS filesystem). Basically, it is a directory tree that has been archived into a single file (.tar) and optionally compressed (.gz). This technique was originally used for Tape ARchives (hence the name tar), but it is a widely used way of distributing program source code around the Internet. You can see what files are in them, or even extract them yourself, by using the standard Unix tar program, which comes with the base FreeBSD system, like this:- &prompt.user; tar tvzf foobar.tar.gz &prompt.user; tar xzvf foobar.tar.gz &prompt.user; tar tvf foobar.tar &prompt.user; tar xvf foobar.tar Q. And a checksum? A. It is a number generated by adding up all the data in the file you want to check. If any of the characters change, the checksum will no longer be equal to the total, so a simple comparison will allow you to spot the difference. (In practice, it is done in a more complicated way to spot problems like position-swapping, which will not show up with a simplistic addition). Q. I did what you said for and it worked great until I tried to install the kermit port:- &prompt.root; make install >> cku190.tar.gz doesn't seem to exist on this system. >> Attempting to fetch from ftp://kermit.columbia.edu/kermit/archives/. Why can it not be found? Have I got a dud CDROM? A. The licensing terms for kermit do not allow us to put the tarball for it on the CDROM, so you will have to fetch it by hand — sorry! The reason why you got all those error messages was because you were not connected to the Internet at the time. Once you have downloaded it from any of the sites above, you can re-start the process (try and choose the nearest site to you, though, to save your time and the Internet's bandwidth). Q. I did that, but when I tried to put it into /usr/ports/distfiles I got some error about not having permission. A. The ports mechanism looks for the tarball in /usr/ports/distfiles, but you will not be able to copy anything there because it is sym-linked to the CDROM, which is read-only. You can tell it to look somewhere else by doing &prompt.root; make DISTDIR=/where/you/put/it install Q. Does the ports scheme only work if you have everything in /usr/ports? My system administrator says I must put everything under /u/people/guests/wurzburger, but it does not seem to work. A. You can use the PORTSDIR and PREFIX variables to tell the ports mechanism to use different directories. For instance, &prompt.root; make PORTSDIR=/u/people/guests/wurzburger/ports install will compile the port in /u/people/guests/wurzburger/ports and install everything under /usr/local. &prompt.root; make PREFIX=/u/people/guests/wurzburger/local install will compile it in /usr/ports and install it in /u/people/guests/wurzburger/local. And of course &prompt.root; make PORTSDIR=.../ports PREFIX=.../local install will combine the two (it is too long to fit on the page if I write it in full, but I am sure you get the idea). If you do not fancy typing all that in every time you install a port (and to be honest, who would?), it is a good idea to put these variables into your environment. Q. I do not have a FreeBSD CDROM, but I would like to have all the tarballs handy on my system so I do not have to wait for a download every time I install a port. Is there an easy way to get them all at once? A. To get every single tarball for the ports collection, do &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; make fetch For all the tarballs for a single ports directory, do &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/directory &prompt.root; make fetch and for just one port — well, I think you have guessed already. Q. I know it is probably faster to fetch the tarballs from one of the FreeBSD mirror sites close by. Is there any way to tell the port to fetch them from servers other than ones listed in the MASTER_SITES? A. Yes. If you know, for example, ftp.FreeBSD.ORG is much closer than sites listed in MASTER_SITES, do as following example. &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/directory &prompt.root; make MASTER_SITE_OVERRIDE=ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD/distfiles/ fetch Q. I want to know what files make is going to need before it tries to pull them down. A. make fetch-list will display a list of the files needed for a port. Q. Is there any way to stop the port from compiling? I want to do some hacking on the source before I install it, but it is a bit tiresome having to watch it and hit control-C every time. A. Doing make extract will stop it after it has fetched and extracted the source code. Q. I am trying to make my own port and I want to be able to stop it compiling until I have had a chance to see if my patches worked properly. Is there something like make extract, but for patches? A. Yep, make patch is what you want. You will probably find the PATCH_DEBUG option useful as well. And by the way, thank you for your efforts! Q. I have heard that some compiler options can cause bugs. Is this true? How can I make sure that I compile ports with the right settings? A. Yes, with version 2.6.3 of gcc (the version shipped with FreeBSD 2.1.0 and 2.1.5), the option could result in buggy code unless you used the option as well. (Most of the ports don't use ). You should be able to specify the compiler options used by something like &prompt.root; make CFLAGS='-O2 -fno-strength-reduce' install or by editing /etc/make.conf, but unfortunately not all ports respect this. The surest way is to do make configure, then go into the source directory and inspect the Makefiles by hand, but this can get tedious if the source has lots of sub-directories, each with their own Makefiles. Q. There are so many ports it is hard to find the one I want. Is there a list anywhere of what ports are available? A. Look in the INDEX file in /usr/ports. Q. I went to install the foo port but the system suddenly stopped compiling it and starting compiling the bar port. What's going on? A. The foo port needs something that is supplied with bar — for instance, if foo uses graphics, bar might have a library with useful graphics processing routines. Or bar might be a tool that is needed to compile the foo port. Q. I installed the grizzle program from the ports and frankly it is a complete waste of disk space. I want to delete it but I do not know where it put all the files. Any clues? A. No problem, just do &prompt.root; pkg_delete grizzle-6.5 Q. Hang on a minute, you have to know the version number to use that command. You do not seriously expect me to remember that, do you?? A. Not at all, you can find it out by doing &prompt.root; pkg_info -a | grep grizzle Information for grizzle-6.5: grizzle-6.5 - the combined piano tutorial, LOGO interpreter and shoot 'em up arcade game. Q. Talking of disk space, the ports directory seems to be taking up an awful lot of room. Is it safe to go in there and delete things? A. Yes, if you have installed the program and are fairly certain you will not need the source again, there is no point in keeping it hanging around. The best way to do this is &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; make clean which will go through all the ports subdirectories and delete everything except the skeletons for each port. Q. I tried that and it still left all those tarballs or whatever you called them in the distfiles directory. Can I delete those as well? A. Yes, if you are sure you have finished with them, those can go as well. Q. I like having lots and lots of programs to play with. Is there any way of installing all the ports in one go? A. Just do &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; make install Q. OK, I tried that, but I thought it would take a very long time so I went to bed and left it to get on with it. When I looked at the computer this morning, it had only done three and a half ports. Did something go wrong? A. No, the problem is that some of the ports need to ask you questions that we cannot answer for you (eg Do you want to print on A4 or US letter sized paper?) and they need to have someone on hand to answer them. Q. I really do not want to spend all day staring at the monitor. Any better ideas? A. OK, do this before you go to bed/work/the local park:- &prompt.root cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; make -DBATCH install This will install every port that does not require user input. Then, when you come back, do &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; make -DIS_INTERACTIVE install to finish the job. Q. At work, we are using frobble, which is in your ports collection, but we have altered it quite a bit to get it to do what we need. Is there any way of making our own packages, so we can distribute it more easily around our sites? A. No problem, assuming you know how to make patches for your changes:- &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/somewhere/frobble &prompt.root; make extract &prompt.root; cd work/frobble-2.8 [Apply your patches] &prompt.root; cd ../.. &prompt.root; make package Q. This ports stuff is really clever. I am desperate to find out how you did it. What is the secret? A. Nothing secret about it at all, just look at the bsd.ports.mk and bsd.ports.subdir.mk files in your makefiles directory. Readers with an aversion to intricate shell-scripts are advised not to follow this link...) System Administration Configuring the FreeBSD Kernel Contributed by &a.jehamby;.6 October 1995. This large section of the handbook discusses the basics of building your own custom kernel for FreeBSD. This section is appropriate for both novice system administrators and those with advanced Unix experience. Why Build a Custom Kernel? Building a custom kernel is one of the most important rites of passage every Unix system administrator must endure. This process, while time-consuming, will provide many benefits to your FreeBSD system. Unlike the GENERIC kernel, which must support every possible SCSI and network card, along with tons of other rarely used hardware support, a custom kernel only contains support for your PC's hardware. This has a number of benefits: It will take less time to boot because it does not have to spend time probing for hardware which you do not have. A custom kernel often uses less memory, which is important because the kernel is the one process which must always be present in memory, and so all of that unused code ties up pages of RAM that your programs would otherwise be able to use. Therefore, on a system with limited RAM, building a custom kernel is of critical importance. Finally, there are several kernel options which you can tune to fit your needs, and device driver support for things like sound cards which you can include in your kernel but are not present in the GENERIC kernel. Building and Installing a Custom Kernel First, let us take a quick tour of the kernel build directory. All directories mentioned will be relative to the main /usr/src/sys directory, which is also accessible through /sys. There are a number of subdirectories here representing different parts of the kernel, but the most important, for our purposes, are i386/conf, where you will edit your custom kernel configuration, and compile, which is the staging area where your kernel will be built. Notice the logical organization of the directory tree, with each supported device, filesystem, and option in its own subdirectory. Also, anything inside the i386 directory deals with PC hardware only, while everything outside the i386 directory is common to all platforms which FreeBSD could potentially be ported to. If there is not a /usr/src/sys directory on your system, then the kernel source has not been been installed. Follow the instructions for installing packages to add this package to your system. Next, move to the i386/conf directory and copy the GENERIC configuration file to the name you want to give your kernel. For example: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/sys/i386/conf &prompt.root; cp GENERIC MYKERNEL Traditionally, this name is in all capital letters and, if you are maintaining multiple FreeBSD machines with different hardware, it is a good idea to name it after your machine's hostname. We will call it MYKERNEL for the purpose of this example. You must execute these and all of the following commands under the root account or you will get permission denied errors. Now, edit MYKERNEL with your favorite text editor. If you are just starting out, the only editor available will probably be vi, which is too complex to explain here, but is covered well in many books in the . Feel free to change the comment lines at the top to reflect your configuration or the changes you have made to differentiate it from GENERIC. If you have build a kernel under SunOS or some other BSD operating system, much of this file will be very familiar to you. If you are coming from some other operating system such as DOS, on the other hand, the GENERIC configuration file might seem overwhelming to you, so follow the descriptions in the section slowly and carefully. If you are trying to upgrade your kernel from an older version of FreeBSD, you will probably have to get a new version of config8 from the same place you got the new kernel sources. It is located in /usr/src/usr.sbin, so you will need to download those sources as well. Re-build and install it before running the next commands. When you are finished, type the following to compile and install your kernel: &prompt.root; /usr/sbin/config MYKERNEL &prompt.root; cd ../../compile/MYKERNEL &prompt.root; make depend &prompt.root; make &prompt.root; make install The new kernel will be copied to the root directory as /kernel and the old kernel will be moved to /kernel.old. Now, shutdown the system and reboot to use your kernel. In case something goes wrong, there are some instructions at the end of this document. Be sure to read the section which explains how to recover in case your new kernel . If you have added any new devices (such as sound cards) you may have to add some to your /dev directory before you can use them. The Configuration File The general format of a configuration file is quite simple. Each line contains a keyword and one or more arguments. For simplicity, most lines only contain one argument. Anything following a # is considered a comment and ignored. The following sections describe each keyword, generally in the order they are listed in GENERIC, although some related keywords have been grouped together in a single section (such as Networking) even though they are actually scattered throughout the GENERIC file. An exhaustive list of options and more detailed explanations of the device lines is present in the LINT configuration file, located in the same directory as GENERIC. If you are in doubt as to the purpose or necessity of a line, check first in LINT. The kernel is currently being moved to a better organization of the option handling. Traditionally, each option in the config file was simply converted into a switch for the CFLAGS line of the kernel Makefile. Naturally, this caused a creeping optionism, with nobody really knowing which option has been referenced in what files. In the new scheme, every #ifdef that is intended to be dependent upon an option gets this option out of an opt_foo.h declaration file created in the compile directory by config. The list of valid options for config lives in two files: options that do not depend on the architecture are listed in /sys/conf/options, architecture-dependent ones in /sys/arch/conf/options.arch, with arch being for example i386. Mandatory Keywords These keywords are required in every kernel you build. machine "i386" The first keyword is machine, which, since FreeBSD only runs on Intel 386 and compatible chips, is i386. Any keyword which contains numbers used as text must be enclosed in quotation marks, otherwise config gets confused and thinks you mean the actual number 386. cpu "cpu_type" The next keyword is cpu, which includes support for each CPU supported by FreeBSD. The possible values of cpu_type include: I386_CPU I486_CPU I586_CPU I686_CPU and multiple instances of the cpu line may be present with different values of cpu_type as are present in the GENERIC kernel. For a custom kernel, it is best to specify only the cpu you have. If, for example, you have an Intel Pentium, use I586_CPU for cpu_type. ident machine_name Next, we have ident, which is the identification of the kernel. You should change this from GENERIC to whatever you named your kernel, in this example, MYKERNEL. The value you put in ident will print when you boot up the kernel, so it is useful to give a kernel a different name if you want to keep it separate from your usual kernel (if you want to build an experimental kernel, for example). Note that, as with machine and cpu, enclose your kernel's name in quotation marks if it contains any numbers. Since this name is passed to the C compiler as a switch, do not use names like DEBUG, or something that could be confused with another machine or CPU name, like vax. maxusers number This file sets the size of a number of important system tables. This number is supposed to be roughly equal to the number of simultaneous users you expect to have on your machine. However, under normal circumstances, you will want to set maxusers to at least 4, especially if you are using the X Window System or compiling software. The reason is that the most important table set by maxusers is the maximum number of processes, which is set to 20 + 16 * maxusers, so if you set maxusers to 1, then you can only have 36 simultaneous processes, including the 18 or so that the system starts up at boot time, and the 15 or so you will probably create when you start the X Window System. Even a simple task like reading a man page will start up nine processes to filter, decompress, and view it. Setting maxusers to 4 will allow you to have up to 84 simultaneous processes, which should be enough for anyone. If, however, you see the dreaded proc table full error when trying to start another program, or are running a server with a large number of simultaneous users (like Walnut Creek CDROM's FTP site), you can always increase this number and rebuild. maxuser does not limit the number of users which can log into your machine. It simply sets various table sizes to reasonable values considering the maximum number of users you will likely have on your system and how many processes each of them will be running. One keyword which does limit the number of simultaneous remote logins is . config kernel_name root on root_device This line specifies the location and name of the kernel. Traditionally the kernel is called vmunix but in FreeBSD, it is aptly named kernel. You should always use kernel for kernel_name because changing it will render numerous system utilities inoperative. The second part of the line specifies the disk and partition where the root filesystem and kernel can be found. Typically this will be wd0 for systems with non-SCSI drives, or sd0 for systems with SCSI drives. General Options These lines provide kernel support for various filesystems and other options. options MATH_EMULATE This line allows the kernel to simulate a math co-processor if your computer does not have one (386 or 486SX). If you have a Pentium, a 486DX, or a 386 or 486SX with a separate 387 or 487 chip, you can comment this line out. The normal math co-processor emulation routines that come with FreeBSD are not very accurate. If you do not have a math co-processor, and you need the best accuracy, I recommend that you change this option to GPL_MATH_EMULATE to use the superior GNU math support, which is not included by default for licensing reasons. options "COMPAT_43" Compatibility with 4.3BSD. Leave this in; some programs will act strangely if you comment this out. options BOUNCE_BUFFERS ISA devices and EISA devices operating in an ISA compatibility mode can only perform DMA (Direct Memory Access) to memory below 16 megabytes. This option enables such devices to work in systems with more than 16 megabytes of memory. options UCONSOLE Allow users to grab the console, useful for X Windows. For example, you can create a console xterm by typing xterm -C, which will display any write, talk, and other messages you receive, as well as any console messages sent by the kernel. options SYSVSHM This option provides for System V shared memory. The most common use of this is the XSHM extension in X Windows, which many graphics-intensive programs (such as the movie player XAnim, and Linux DOOM) will automatically take advantage of for extra speed. If you use the X Window System, you will definitely want to include this. options SYSVSEM Support for System V semaphores. Less commonly used but only adds a few hundred bytes to the kernel. options SYSVMSG Support for System V messages. Again, only adds a few hundred bytes to the kernel. The ipcs1 command will tell will list any processes using each of these System V facilities. Filesystem Options These options add support for various filesystems. You must include at least one of these to support the device you boot from; typically this will be FFS if you boot from a hard drive, or NFS if you are booting a diskless workstation from Ethernet. You can include other commonly-used filesystems in the kernel, but feel free to comment out support for filesystems you use less often (perhaps the MS-DOS filesystem?), since they will be dynamically loaded from the Loadable Kernel Module directory /lkm the first time you mount a partition of that type. options FFS The basic hard drive filesystem; leave it in if you boot from the hard disk. options NFS Network Filesystem. Unless you plan to mount partitions from a Unix file server over Ethernet, you can comment this out. options MSDOSFS MS-DOS Filesystem. Unless you plan to mount a DOS formatted hard drive partition at boot time, you can safely comment this out. It will be automatically loaded the first time you mount a DOS partition, as described above. Also, the excellent mtools software (in the ports collection) allows you to access DOS floppies without having to mount and unmount them (and does not require MSDOSFS at all). options "CD9660" ISO 9660 filesystem for CD-ROMs. Comment it out if you do not have a CD-ROM drive or only mount data CD's occasionally (since it will be dynamically loaded the first time you mount a data CD). Audio CD's do not need this filesystem. options PROCFS Process filesystem. This is a pretend filesystem mounted on /proc which allows programs like ps1 to give you more information on what processes are running. options MFS Memory-mapped file system. This is basically a RAM disk for fast storage of temporary files, useful if you have a lot of swap space that you want to take advantage of. A perfect place to mount an MFS partition is on the /tmp directory, since many programs store temporary data here. To mount an MFS RAM disk on /tmp, add the following line to /etc/fstab and then reboot or type mount /tmp: /dev/wd1s2b /tmp mfs rw 0 0 Replace the /dev/wd1s2b with the name of your swap partition, which will be listed in your /etc/fstab as follows: /dev/wd1s2b none swap sw 0 0 Also, the MFS filesystem can not be dynamically loaded, so you must compile it into your kernel if you want to experiment with it. options "EXT2FS" Linux's native file system. With ext2fs support you are able to read and write to Linux partitions. This is useful if you dual-boot FreeBSD and Linux and want to share data between the two systems. options QUOTA Enable disk quotas. If you have a public access system, and do not want users to be able to overflow the /home partition, you can establish disk quotas for each user. Refer to the section for more information. Basic Controllers and Devices These sections describe the basic disk, tape, and CD-ROM controllers supported by FreeBSD. There are separate sections for controllers and cards. controller isa0 All PC's supported by FreeBSD have one of these. If you have an IBM PS/2 (Micro Channel Architecture), then you cannot run FreeBSD at this time. controller pci0 Include this if you have a PCI motherboard. This enables auto-detection of PCI cards and gatewaying from the PCI to the ISA bus. controller fdc0 Floppy drive controller: fd0 is the A: floppy drive, and fd1 is the B: drive. ft0 is a QIC-80 tape drive attached to the floppy controller. Comment out any lines corresponding to devices you do not have. QIC-80 tape support requires a separate filter program called ft8, see the manual page for details. controller wdc0 This is the primary IDE controller. wd0 and wd1 are the master and slave hard drive, respectively. wdc1 is a secondary IDE controller where you might have a third or fourth hard drive, or an IDE CD-ROM. Comment out the lines which do not apply (if you have a SCSI hard drive, you will probably want to comment out all six lines, for example). device wcd0 This device provides IDE CD-ROM support. Be sure to leave wdc0 uncommented, and wdc1 if you have more than one IDE controller and your CD-ROM is on the second one card. To use this, you must also include the line options ATAPI. device npx0 at isa? port "IO_NPX" irq 13 vector npxintr npx0 is the interface to the floating point math unit in FreeBSD, either the hardware co-processor or the software math emulator. It is not optional. device wt0 at isa? port 0x300 bio irq 5 drq 1 vector wtintr Wangtek and Archive QIC-02/QIC-36 tape drive support Proprietary CD-ROM support The following drivers are for the so-called proprietary CD-ROM drives. These drives have their own controller card or might plug into a sound card such as the SoundBlaster 16. They are not IDE or SCSI. Most older single-speed and double-speed CD-ROMs use these interfaces, while newer quad-speeds are likely to be or . device mcd0 at isa? port 0x300 bio irq 10 vector mcdintr Mitsumi CD-ROM (LU002, LU005, FX001D). device scd0 at isa? port 0x230 bio Sony CD-ROM (CDU31, CDU33A). controller matcd0 at isa? port ? bio Matsushita/Panasonic CD-ROM (sold by Creative Labs for SoundBlaster). SCSI Device Support This section describes the various SCSI controllers and devices supported by FreeBSD. SCSI Controllers The next ten or so lines include support for different kinds of SCSI controllers. Comment out all except for the one(s) you have: controller bt0 at isa? port "IO_BT0" bio irq ? vector btintr Most Buslogic controllers controller uha0 at isa? port "IO_UHA0" bio irq ? drq 5 vector uhaintr UltraStor 14F and 34F controller ahc0 Adaptec 274x/284x/294x controller ahb0 at isa? bio irq ? vector ahbintr Adaptec 174x controller aha0 at isa? port "IO_AHA0" bio irq ? drq 5 vector ahaintr Adaptec 154x controller aic0 at isa? port 0x340 bio irq 11 vector aicintr Adaptec 152x and sound cards using Adaptec AIC-6360 (slow!) controller nca0 at isa? port 0x1f88 bio irq 10 vector ncaintr ProAudioSpectrum cards using NCR 5380 or Trantor T130 controller sea0 at isa? bio irq 5 iomem 0xc8000 iosiz 0x2000 vector seaintr Seagate ST01/02 8 bit controller (slow!) controller wds0 at isa? port 0x350 bio irq 15 drq 6 vector wdsintr Western Digital WD7000 controller controller ncr0 NCR 53C810, 53C815, 53C825, 53C860, 53C875 PCI SCSI controller options "SCSI_DELAY=15" This causes the kernel to pause 15 seconds before probing each SCSI device in your system. If you only have IDE hard drives, you can ignore this, otherwise you will probably want to lower this number, perhaps to 5 seconds, to speed up booting. Of course if you do this, and FreeBSD has trouble recognizing your SCSI devices, you will have to raise it back up. controller scbus0 If you have any SCSI controllers, this line provides generic SCSI support. If you do not have SCSI, you can comment this, and the following three lines, out. device sd0 Support for SCSI hard drives. device st0 Support for SCSI tape drives. device cd0 Support for SCSI CD-ROM drives. Note that the number 0 in the above entries is slightly misleading: all these devices are automatically configured as they are found, regardless of how many of them are hooked up to the SCSI bus(es), and which target IDs they have. If you want to wire down specific target IDs to particular devices, refer to the appropriate section of the LINT kernel config file. Console, Bus Mouse, and X Server Support You must choose one of these two console types, and, if you plan to use the X Window System with the vt220 console, enable the XSERVER option and optionally, a bus mouse or PS/2 mouse device. device sc0 at isa? port "IO_KBD" tty irq 1 vector scintr sc0 is the default console driver, which resembles an SCO console. Since most full-screen programs access the console through a terminal database library like termcap, it should not matter much whether you use this or vt0, the VT220 compatible console driver. When you log in, set your TERM variable to scoansi if full-screen programs have trouble running under this console. device vt0 at isa? port "IO_KBD" tty irq 1 vector pcrint This is a VT220-compatible console driver, backwards compatible to VT100/102. It works well on some laptops which have hardware incompatibilities with sc0. Also, set your TERM variable to vt100 or vt220 when you log in. This driver might also prove useful when connecting to a large number of different machines over the network, where the termcap or terminfo entries for the sc0 device are often not available — vt100 should be available on virtually any platform. options "PCVT_FREEBSD=210" Required with the vt0 console driver. options XSERVER Only applicable with the vt0 console driver. This includes code required to run the XFree86 X Window Server under the vt0 console driver. device mse0 at isa? port 0x23c tty irq 5 vector ms Use this device if you have a Logitech or ATI InPort bus mouse card. If you have a serial mouse, ignore these two lines, and instead, make sure the appropriate port is enabled (probably COM1). device psm0 at isa? port "IO_KBD" conflicts tty irq 12 vector psmintr Use this device if your mouse plugs into the PS/2 mouse port. Serial and Parallel Ports Nearly all systems have these. If you are attaching a printer to one of these ports, the section of the handbook is very useful. If you are using modem, provides extensive detail on serial port configuration for use with such devices. device sio0 at isa? port "IO_COM1" tty irq 4 vector siointr sio0 through sio3 are the four serial ports referred to as COM1 through COM4 in the MS-DOS world. Note that if you have an internal modem on COM4 and a serial port at COM2 you will have to change the IRQ of the modem to 2 (for obscure technical reasons IRQ 2 = IRQ 9) in order to access it from FreeBSD. If you have a multiport serial card, check the manual page for sio4 for more information on the proper values for these lines. Some video cards (notably those based on S3 chips) use IO addresses of the form 0x*2e8, and since many cheap serial cards do not fully decode the 16-bit IO address space, they clash with these cards, making the COM4 port practically unavailable. Each serial port is required to have a unique IRQ (unless you are using one of the multiport cards where shared interrupts are supported), so the default IRQs for COM3 and COM4 cannot be used. device lpt0 at isa? port? tty irq 7 vector lptintr lpt0 through lpt2 are the three printer ports you could conceivably have. Most people just have one, though, so feel free to comment out the other two lines if you do not have them. Networking FreeBSD, as with Unix in general, places a big emphasis on networking. Therefore, even if you do not have an Ethernet card, pay attention to the mandatory options and the dial-up networking support. options INET Networking support. Leave it in even if you do not plan to be connected to a network. Most programs require at least loopback networking (i.e. making network connections within your PC) so this is essentially mandatory. Ethernet cards The next lines enable support for various Ethernet cards. If you do not have a network card, you can comment out all of these lines. Otherwise, you will want to leave in support for your particular Ethernet card(s): device de0 Ethernet adapters based on Digital Equipment DC21040, DC21041 or DC21140 chips device fxp0 Intel EtherExpress Pro/100B device vx0 3Com 3C590 and 3C595 (buggy) device cx0 at isa? port 0x240 net irq 15 drq 7 vector cxintr Cronyx/Sigma multiport sync/async (with Cisco or PPP framing) device ed0 at isa? port 0x280 net irq 5 iomem 0xd8000 vector edintr Western Digital and SMC 80xx and 8216; Novell NE1000 and NE2000; 3Com 3C503; HP PC Lan Plus (HP27247B and HP27252A) device el0 at isa? port 0x300 net irq 9 vector elintr 3Com 3C501 (slow!) device eg0 at isa? port 0x310 net irq 5 vector egintr 3Com 3C505 device ep0 at isa? port 0x300 net irq 10 vector epintr 3Com 3C509 (buggy) device fe0 at isa? port 0x240 net irq ? vector feintr Fujitsu MB86960A/MB86965A Ethernet device fea0 at isa? net irq ? vector feaintr DEC DEFEA EISA FDDI adapter device ie0 at isa? port 0x360 net irq 7 iomem 0xd0000 vector ieintr AT&T StarLAN 10 and EN100; 3Com 3C507; unknown NI5210 device ix0 at isa? port 0x300 net irq 10 iomem 0xd0000 iosiz 32768 vector ixintr Intel EtherExpress 16 device le0 at isa? port 0x300 net irq 5 iomem 0xd0000 vector le_intr Digital Equipment EtherWorks 2 and EtherWorks 3 (DEPCA, DE100, DE101, DE200, DE201, DE202, DE203, DE204, DE205, DE422) device lnc0 at isa? port 0x300 net irq 10 drq 0 vector lncintr Lance/PCnet cards (Isolan, Novell NE2100, NE32-VL) device ze0 at isa? port 0x300 net irq 5 iomem 0xd8000 vector zeintr IBM/National Semiconductor PCMCIA ethernet controller. device zp0 at isa? port 0x300 net irq 10 iomem 0xd8000 vector zpintr 3Com PCMCIA Etherlink III With certain cards (notably the NE2000) you will have to change the port and/or IRQ since there is no standard location for these cards. pseudo-device loop loop is the generic loopback device for TCP/IP. If you telnet or FTP to localhost (a.k.a. 127.0.0.1) it will come back at you through this pseudo-device. Mandatory. pseudo-device ether ether is only needed if you have an Ethernet card and includes generic Ethernet protocol code. pseudo-device sl number sl is for SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol) support. This has been almost entirely supplanted by PPP, which is easier to set up, better suited for modem-to-modem connections, as well as more powerful. The number after sl specifies how many simultaneous SLIP sessions to support. This handbook has more information on setting up a SLIP or . pseudo-device ppp number ppp is for kernel-mode PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) support for dial-up Internet connections. There is also version of PPP implemented as a user application that uses the tun and offers more flexibility and features such as demand dialing. If you still want to use this PPP driver, read the section of the handbook. As with the sl device, number specifies how many simultaneous PPP connections to support. pseudo-device tun number tun is used by the user-mode PPP software. This program is easy to set up and very fast. It also has special features such as automatic dial-on-demand. The number after tun specifies the number of simultaneous PPP sessions to support. See the section of the handbook for more information. pseudo-device bpfilter number Berkeley packet filter. This pseudo-device allows network interfaces to be placed in promiscuous mode, capturing every packet on a broadcast network (e.g. an ethernet). These packets can be captured to disk and/or examined with the tcpdump1 program. Note that implementation of this capability can seriously compromise your overall network security. The number after bpfilter is the number of interfaces that can be examined simultaneously. Optional, not recommended except for those who are fully aware of the potential pitfalls. Not all network cards support this capability. Sound cards This is the first section containing lines that are not in the GENERIC kernel. To include sound card support, you will have to copy the appropriate lines from the LINT kernel (which contains support for every device) as follows: controller snd0 Generic sound driver code. Required for all of the following sound cards except pca. device pas0 at isa? port 0x388 irq 10 drq 6 vector pasintr ProAudioSpectrum digital audio and MIDI. device sb0 at isa? port 0x220 irq 7 conflicts drq 1 vector sbintr SoundBlaster digital audio. If your SoundBlaster is on a different IRQ (such as 5), change irq 7 to, for example, irq 5 and remove the conflicts keyword. Also, you must add the line: options "SBC_IRQ=5" device sbxvi0 at isa? drq 5 SoundBlaster 16 digital 16-bit audio. If your SB16 is on a different 16-bit DMA channel (such as 6 or 7), change the drq 5 keyword appropriately, and then add the line: options "SB16_DMA=6" device sbmidi0 at isa? port 0x330 SoundBlaster 16 MIDI interface. If you have a SoundBlaster 16, you must include this line, or the kernel will not compile. device gus0 at isa? port 0x220 irq 10 drq 1 vector gusintr Gravis Ultrasound. device mss0 at isa? port 0x530 irq 10 drq 1 vector adintr Microsoft Sound System. device opl0 at isa? port 0x388 conflicts AdLib FM-synthesis audio. Include this line for AdLib, SoundBlaster, and ProAudioSpectrum users, if you want to play MIDI songs with a program such as playmidi (in the ports collection). device mpu0 at isa? port 0x330 irq 6 drq 0 Roland MPU-401 stand-alone card. device uart0 at isa? port 0x330 irq 5 vector "m6850intr" Stand-alone 6850 UART for MIDI. device pca0 at isa? port "IO_TIMER1" tty Digital audio through PC speaker. This is going to be very poor sound quality and quite CPU-intensive, so you have been warned (but it does not require a sound card). There is some additional documentation in /usr/src/sys/i386/isa/sound/sound.doc. Also, if you add any of these devices, be sure to create the sound . Pseudo-devices Pseudo-device drivers are parts of the kernel that act like device drivers but do not correspond to any actual hardware in the machine. The pseudo-devices are in that section, while the remainder are here. pseudo-device gzip gzip allows you to run FreeBSD programs that have been compressed with gzip. The programs in /stand are compressed so it is a good idea to have this option in your kernel. pseudo-device log log is used for logging of kernel error messages. Mandatory. pseudo-device pty number pty is a pseudo-terminal or simulated login port. It is used by incoming telnet and rlogin sessions, xterm, and some other applications such as emacs. The number indicates the number of ptys to create. If you need more than GENERIC default of 16 simultaneous xterm windows and/or remote logins, be sure to increase this number accordingly, up to a maximum of 64. pseudo-device snp number Snoop device. This pseudo-device allows one terminal session to watch another using the watch8 command. Note that implementation of this capability has important security and privacy implications. The number after snp is the total number of simultaneous snoop sessions. Optional. pseudo-device vn Vnode driver. Allows a file to be treated as a device after being set up with the vnconfig8 command. This driver can be useful for manipulating floppy disk images and using a file as a swap device (e.g. an MS Windows swap file). Optional. pseudo-device ccd number Concatenated disks. This pseudo-device allows you to concatenate multiple disk partitions into one large meta-disk. The number after ccd is the total number of concatenated disks (not total number of disks that can be concatenated) that can be created. (See ccd4 and ccdconfig8 man pages for more details.) Optional. Joystick, PC Speaker, Miscellaneous This section describes some miscellaneous hardware devices supported by FreeBSD. Note that none of these lines are included in the GENERIC kernel, you will have to copy them from this handbook or the LINT kernel (which contains support for every device): device joy0 at isa? port "IO_GAME" PC joystick device. pseudo-device speaker Supports IBM BASIC-style noises through the PC speaker. Some fun programs which use this are /usr/sbin/spkrtest, which is a shell script that plays some simple songs, and /usr/games/piano which lets you play songs using the keyboard as a simple piano (this file only exists if you have installed the games package). Also, the excellent text role-playing game NetHack (in the ports collection) can be configured to use this device to play songs when you play musical instruments in the game. See also the device. Making Device Nodes Almost every device in the kernel has a corresponding node entry in the /dev directory. These nodes look like regular files, but are actually special entries into the kernel which programs use to access the device. The shell script /dev/MAKEDEV, which is executed when you first install the operating system, creates nearly all of the device nodes supported. However, it does not create all of them, so when you add support for a new device, it pays to make sure that the appropriate entries are in this directory, and if not, add them. Here is a simple example: Suppose you add the IDE CD-ROM support to the kernel. The line to add is: controller wcd0 This means that you should look for some entries that start with wcd0 in the /dev directory, possibly followed by a letter, such as c, or preceded by the letter r, which means a raw device. It turns out that those files are not there, so I must change to the /dev directory and type: &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV wcd0 When this script finishes, you will find that there are now wcd0c and rwcd0c entries in /dev so you know that it executed correctly. For sound cards, the command: &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV snd0 creates the appropriate entries. When creating device nodes for devices such as sound cards, if other people have access to your machine, it may be desirable to protect the devices from outside access by adding them to the /etc/fbtab file. See man fbtab for more information. Follow this simple procedure for any other non-GENERIC devices which do not have entries. All SCSI controllers use the same set of /dev entries, so you do not need to create these. Also, network cards and SLIP/PPP pseudo-devices do not have entries in /dev at all, so you do not have to worry about these either. If Something Goes Wrong There are four categories of trouble that can occur when building a custom kernel. They are: Config command fails If the config command fails when you give it your kernel description, you have probably made a simple error somewhere. Fortunately, config will print the line number that it had trouble with, so you can quickly skip to it with vi. For example, if you see: config: line 17: syntax error you can skip to the problem in vi by typing 17G in command mode. Make sure the keyword is typed correctly, by comparing it to the GENERIC kernel or another reference. Make command fails If the make command fails, it usually signals an error in your kernel description, but not severe enough for config to catch it. Again, look over your configuration, and if you still cannot resolve the problem, send mail to the &a.questions; with your kernel configuration, and it should be diagnosed very quickly. Kernel will not boot If your new kernel does not boot, or fails to recognize your devices, do not panic! Fortunately, BSD has an excellent mechanism for recovering from incompatible kernels. Simply type the name of the kernel you want to boot from (i.e. kernel.old) at the FreeBSD boot prompt instead of pressing return. When reconfiguring a kernel, it is always a good idea to keep a kernel that is known to work on hand. After booting with a good kernel you can check over your configuration file and try to build it again. One helpful resource is the /var/log/messages file which records, among other things, all of the kernel messages from every successful boot. Also, the dmesg8 command will print the kernel messages from the current boot. If you are having trouble building a kernel, make sure to keep a GENERIC, or some other kernel that is known to work on hand as a different name that will not get erased on the next build. You cannot rely on kernel.old because when installing a new kernel, kernel.old is overwritten with the last installed kernel which may be non-functional. Also, as soon as possible, move the working kernel to the proper kernel location or commands such as ps1 will not work properly. The proper command to unlock the kernel file that make installs (in order to move another kernel back permanently) is: &prompt.root; chflags noschg /kernel And, if you want to lock your new kernel into place, or any file for that matter, so that it cannot be moved or tampered with: &prompt.root; chflags schg /kernel Kernel works, but ps does not work any more! If you have installed a different version of the kernel from the one that the system utilities have been built with, for example, an experimental 2.2.0 kernel on a 2.1.0-RELEASE system, many system-status commands like ps1 and vmstat8 will not work any more. You must recompile the libkvm library as well as these utilities. This is one reason it is not normally a good idea to use a different version of the kernel from the rest of the operating system. Security DES, MD5, and Crypt Contributed by &a.wollman;24 September 1995. In order to protect the security of passwords on UN*X systems from being easily exposed, passwords have traditionally been scrambled in some way. Starting with Bell Labs' Seventh Edition Unix, passwords were encrypted using what the security people call a one-way hash function. That is to say, the password is transformed in such a way that the original password cannot be regained except by brute-force searching the space of possible passwords. Unfortunately, the only secure method that was available to the AT&T researchers at the time was based on DES, the Data Encryption Standard. This causes only minimal difficulty for commercial vendors, but is a serious problem for an operating system like FreeBSD where all the source code is freely available, because national governments in many places like to place restrictions on cross-border transport of DES and other encryption software. So, the FreeBSD team was faced with a dilemma: how could we provide compatibility with all those UNIX systems out there while still not running afoul of the law? We decided to take a dual-track approach: we would make distributions which contained only a non-regulated password scrambler, and then provide as a separate add-on library the DES-based password hash. The password-scrambling function was moved out of the C library to a separate library, called libcrypt because the name of the C function to implement it is crypt. In FreeBSD 1.x and some pre-release 2.0 snapshots, the non-regulated scrambler uses an insecure function written by Nate Williams; in subsequent releases this was replaced by a mechanism using the RSA Data Security, Inc., MD5 one-way hash function. Because neither of these functions involve encryption, they are believed to be exportable from the US and importable into many other countries. Meanwhile, work was also underway on the DES-based password hash function. First, a version of the crypt function which was written outside the US was imported, thus synchronizing the US and non-US code. Then, the library was modified and split into two; the DES libcrypt contains only the code involved in performing the one-way password hash, and a separate libcipher was created with the entry points to actually perform encryption. The code was partitioned in this way to make it easier to get an export license for the compiled library. Recognizing your <command>crypt</command> mechanism It is fairly easy to recognize whether a particular password string was created using the DES- or MD5-based hash function. MD5 password strings always begin with the characters $1$. DES password strings do not have any particular identifying characteristics, but they are shorter than MD5 passwords, and are coded in a 64-character alphabet which does not include the $ character, so a relatively short string which doesn't begin with a dollar sign is very likely a DES password. Determining which library is being used on your system is fairly easy for most programs, except for those like init which are statically linked. (For those programs, the only way is to try them on a known password and see if it works.) Programs which use crypt are linked against libcrypt, which for each type of library is a symbolic link to the appropriate implementation. For example, on a system using the DES versions: &prompt.user; cd /usr/lib &prompt.user; ls -l /usr/lib/libcrypt* lrwxr-xr-x 1 bin bin 13 Sep 5 12:50 libcrypt.a -> libdescrypt.a lrwxr-xr-x 1 bin bin 18 Sep 5 12:50 libcrypt.so.2.0 -> libdescrypt.so.2.0 lrwxr-xr-x 1 bin bin 15 Sep 5 12:50 libcrypt_p.a -> libdescrypt_p.a On a system using the MD5-based libraries, the same links will be present, but the target will be libscrypt rather than libdescrypt. S/Key Contributed by &a.wollman;25 September 1995. S/Key is a one-time password scheme based on a one-way hash function (in our version, this is MD4 for compatibility; other versions have used MD5 and DES-MAC). S/Key has been a standard part of all FreeBSD distributions since version 1.1.5, and is also implemented on a large and growing number of other systems. S/Key is a registered trademark of Bell Communications Research, Inc. There are three different sorts of passwords which we will talk about in the discussion below. The first is your usual UNIX-style or Kerberos password; we will call this a UNIX password. The second sort is the one-time password which is generated by the S/Key key program and accepted by the keyinit program and the login prompt; we will call this a one-time password. The final sort of password is the secret password which you give to the key program (and sometimes the keyinit program) which it uses to generate one-time passwords; we will call it a secret password or just unqualified password. The secret password does not necessarily have anything to do with your UNIX password (while they can be the same, this is not recommended). While UNIX passwords are limited to eight characters in length, your S/Key secret password can be as long as you like; I use seven-word phrases. In general, the S/Key system operates completely independently of the UNIX password system. There are in addition two other sorts of data involved in the S/Key system; one is called the seed or (confusingly) key, and consists of two letters and five digits, and the other is the iteration count and is a number between 100 and 1. S/Key constructs a one-time password from these components by concatenating the seed and the secret password, then applying a one-way hash (the RSA Data Security, Inc., MD4 secure hash function) iteration-count times, and turning the result into six short English words. The login and su programs keep track of the last one-time password used, and the user is authenticated if the hash of the user-provided password is equal to the previous password. Because a one-way hash function is used, it is not possible to generate future one-time passwords having overheard one which was successfully used; the iteration count is decremented after each successful login to keep the user and login program in sync. (When you get the iteration count down to 1, it is time to reinitialize S/Key.) There are four programs involved in the S/Key system which we will discuss below. The key program accepts an iteration count, a seed, and a secret password, and generates a one-time password. The keyinit program is used to initialized S/Key, and to change passwords, iteration counts, or seeds; it takes either a secret password, or an iteration count, seed, and one-time password. The keyinfo program examines the /etc/skeykeys file and prints out the invoking user's current iteration count and seed. Finally, the login and su programs contain the necessary logic to accept S/Key one-time passwords for authentication. The login program is also capable of disallowing the use of UNIX passwords on connections coming from specified addresses. There are four different sorts of operations we will cover. The first is using the keyinit program over a secure connection to set up S/Key for the first time, or to change your password or seed. The second operation is using the keyinit program over an insecure connection, in conjunction with the key program over a secure connection, to do the same. The third is using the key program to log in over an insecure connection. The fourth is using the key program to generate a number of keys which can be written down or printed out to carry with you when going to some location without secure connections to anywhere (like at a conference). Secure connection initialization To initialize S/Key, change your password, or change your seed while logged in over a secure connection (e.g., on the console of a machine), use the keyinit command without any parameters while logged in as yourself: &prompt.user; keyinit Updating wollman: ) these will not appear if you Old key: ha73895 ) have not used S/Key before Reminder - Only use this method if you are directly connected. If you are using telnet or rlogin exit with no password and use keyinit -s. Enter secret password: ) I typed my pass phrase here Again secret password: ) I typed it again ID wollman s/key is 99 ha73896 ) discussed below SAG HAS FONT GOUT FATE BOOM ) There is a lot of information here. At theEnter secret password: prompt, you should enter some password or phrase (I use phrases of minimum seven words) which will be needed to generate login keys. The line starting `ID' gives the parameters of your particular S/Key instance: your login name, the iteration count, and seed. When logging in with S/Key, the system will remember these parameters and present them back to you so you do not have to remember them. The last line gives the particular one-time password which corresponds to those parameters and your secret password; if you were to re-login immediately, this one-time password is the one you would use. Insecure connection initialization To initialize S/Key or change your password or seed over an insecure connection, you will need to already have a secure connection to some place where you can run the key program; this might be in the form of a desk accessory on a Macintosh, or a shell prompt on a machine you trust (we will show the latter). You will also need to make up an iteration count (100 is probably a good value), and you may make up your own seed or use a randomly-generated one. Over on the insecure connection (to the machine you are initializing), use the keyinit -s command: &prompt.user; keyinit -s Updating wollman: Old key: kh94741 Reminder you need the 6 English words from the skey command. Enter sequence count from 1 to 9999: 100 ) I typed this Enter new key [default kh94742]: s/key 100 kh94742 To accept the default seed (which the keyinit program confusingly calls a key), press return. Then move over to your secure connection or S/Key desk accessory, and give it the same parameters: &prompt.user; key 100 kh94742 Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password: ) I typed my secret password HULL NAY YANG TREE TOUT VETO Now switch back over to the insecure connection, and copy the one-time password generated by key over to the keyinit program: s/key access password: HULL NAY YANG TREE TOUT VETO ID wollman s/key is 100 kh94742 HULL NAY YANG TREE TOUT VETO The rest of the description from the previous section applies here as well. Diversion: a login prompt Before explaining how to generate one-time passwords, we should go over an S/Key login prompt: &prompt.user; telnet himalia Trying 18.26.0.186... Connected to himalia.lcs.mit.edu. Escape character is '^]'. s/key 92 hi52030 Password: Note that, before prompting for a password, the login program prints out the iteration number and seed which you will need in order to generate the appropriate key. You will also find a useful feature (not shown here): if you press return at the password prompt, the login program will turn echo on, so you can see what you are typing. This can be extremely useful if you are attempting to type in an S/Key by hand, such as from a printout. If this machine were configured to disallow UNIX passwords over a connection from my machine, the prompt would have also included the annotation (s/key required), indicating that only S/Key one-time passwords will be accepted. Generating a single one-time password Now, to generate the one-time password needed to answer this login prompt, we use a trusted machine and the key program. (There are versions of the key program from DOS and Windows machines, and there is an S/Key desk accessory for Macintosh computers as well.) The command-line key program takes as its parameters the iteration count and seed; you can cut-and-paste right from the login prompt starting at key to the end of the line. Thus: &prompt.user; key 92 hi52030 ) pasted from previous section Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password: ) I typed my secret password ADEN BED WOLF HAW HOT STUN And in the other window: s/key 92 hi52030 ) from previous section Password: (turning echo on) Password:ADEN BED WOLF HAW HOT STUN Last login: Wed Jun 28 15:31:00 from halloran-eldar.l [etc.] This is the easiest mechanism if you have a trusted machine. There is a Java S/Key key applet, The Java OTP Calculator, that you can download and run locally on any Java supporting brower. Generating multiple one-time passwords Sometimes we have to go places where no trusted machines or connections are available. In this case, it is possible to use the key command to generate a number of one-time passwords in the same command; these can then be printed out. For example: &prompt.user; key -n 25 57 zz99999 Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password: 33: WALT THY MALI DARN NIT HEAD 34: ASK RICE BEAU GINA DOUR STAG … 56: AMOS BOWL LUG FAT CAIN INCH 57: GROW HAYS TUN DISH CAR BALM The requests twenty-five keys in sequence; the indicates the ending iteration number; and the rest is as before. Note that these are printed out in reverse order of eventual use. If you are really paranoid, you might want to write the results down by hand; otherwise you can cut-and-paste into lpr. Note that each line shows both the iteration count and the one-time password; you may still find it handy to scratch off passwords as you use them. Restricting use of UNIX passwords The configuration file /etc/skey.access can be used to configure restrictions on the use of UNIX passwords based on the host name, user name, terminal port, or IP address of a login session. The complete format of the file is documented in the skey.access5 manual page; there are also some security cautions there which should be read before depending on this file for security. If there is no /etc/skey.access file (which is the default state as FreeBSD is shipped), then all users will be allowed to use UNIX passwords. If the file exists, however, then all users will be required to use S/Key unless explicitly permitted to do otherwise by configuration statements in the skey.access file. In all cases, UNIX passwords are permitted on the console. Here is a sample configuration file which illustrates the three most common sorts of configuration statements: permit internet 18.26.0.0 255.255.0.0 permit user jrl permit port ttyd0 The first line (permit internet) allows users whose IP source address (which is vulnerable to spoofing) matches the specified value and mask, to use UNIX passwords. This should not be considered a security mechanism, but rather, a means to remind authorized users that they are using an insecure network and need to use S/Key for authentication. The second line (permit user) allows the specified user to use UNIX passwords at any time. Generally speaking, this should only be used for people who are either unable to use the key program, like those with dumb terminals, or those who are uneducable. The third line (permit port) allows all users logging in on the specified terminal line to use UNIX passwords; this would be used for dial-ups. Kerberos Contributed by &a.markm; (based on contribution by &a.md;). Kerberos is a network add-on system/protocol that allows users to authenticate themselves through the services of a secure server. Services such as remote login, remote copy, secure inter-system file copying and other high-risk tasks are made considerably safer and more controllable. The following instructions can be used as a guide on how to set up Kerberos as distributed for FreeBSD. However, you should refer to the relevant manual pages for a complete description. In FreeBSD, the Kerberos is not that from the original 4.4BSD-Lite, distribution, but eBones, which had been previously ported to FreeBSD 1.1.5.1, and was sourced from outside the USA/Canada, and is thus available to system owners outside those countries. For those needing to get a legal foreign distribution of this software, please do not get it from a USA or Canada site. You will get that site in big trouble! A legal copy of this is available from skeleton.mikom.csir.co.za, which is in South Africa. Creating the initial database This is done on the Kerberos server only. First make sure that you do not have any old Kerberos databases around. You should change to the directory /etc/kerberosIV and check that only the following files are present: &prompt.root; cd /etc/kerberosIV &prompt.root; ls README krb.conf krb.realms If any additional files (such as principal.* or master_key) exist, then use the kdb_destroy command to destroy the old Kerberos database, of if Kerberos is not running, simply delete the extra files with rm. You should now edit the krb.conf and krb.realms files to define your Kerberos realm. In this case the realm will be GRONDAR.ZA and the server is grunt.grondar.za. We edit or create the krb.conf file: &prompt.root; cat krb.conf GRONDAR.ZA GRONDAR.ZA grunt.grondar.za admin server CS.BERKELEY.EDU okeeffe.berkeley.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-1.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-2.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-3.mit.edu LCS.MIT.EDU kerberos.lcs.mit.edu TELECOM.MIT.EDU bitsy.mit.edu ARC.NASA.GOV trident.arc.nasa.gov In this case, the other realms do not need to be there. They are here as an example of how a machine may be made aware of multiple realms. You may wish to not include them for simplicity. The first line names the realm in which this system works. The other lines contain realm/host entries. The first item on a line is a realm, and the second is a host in that realm that is acting as a key distribution centre. The words admin server following a hosts name means that host also provides an administrative database server. For further explanation of these terms, please consult the Kerberos man pages. Now we have to add grunt.grondar.za to the GRONDAR.ZA realm and also add an entry to put all hosts in the .grondar.za domain in the GRONDAR.ZA realm. The krb.realms file would be updated as follows: &prompt.root; cat krb.realms grunt.grondar.za GRONDAR.ZA .grondar.za GRONDAR.ZA .berkeley.edu CS.BERKELEY.EDU .MIT.EDU ATHENA.MIT.EDU .mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU Again, the other realms do not need to be there. They are here as an example of how a machine may be made aware of multiple realms. You may wish to remove them to simplify things. The first line puts the specific system into the named realm. The rest of the lines show how to default systems of a particular subdomain to a named realm. Now we are ready to create the database. This only needs to run on the Kerberos server (or Key Distribution Centre). Issue the kdb_init command to do this: &prompt.root; kdb_init Realm name [default ATHENA.MIT.EDU ]: GRONDAR.ZA You will be prompted for the database Master Password. It is important that you NOT FORGET this password. Enter Kerberos master key: Now we have to save the key so that servers on the local machine can pick it up. Use the kstash command to do this. &prompt.root; kstash Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! This saves the encrypted master password in /etc/kerberosIV/master_key. Making it all run Two principals need to be added to the database for each system that will be secured with Kerberos. Their names are kpasswd and rcmd These two principals are made for each system, with the instance being the name of the individual system. These daemons, kpasswd and rcmd allow other systems to change Kerberos passwords and run commands like rcp, rlogin and rsh. Now let's add these entries: &prompt.root; kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in [brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value. Principal name: passwd Instance: grunt <Not found>, Create [y] ? y Principal: passwd, Instance: grunt, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Verifying password New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Random password [y] ? y Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: rcmd Instance: grunt <Not found>, Create [y] ? Principal: rcmd, Instance: grunt, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Verifying password New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Random password [y] ? Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exit Creating the server file We now have to extract all the instances which define the services on each machine. For this we use the ext_srvtab command. This will create a file which must be copied or moved by secure means to each Kerberos client's /etc/kerberosIV directory. This file must be present on each server and client, and is crucial to the operation of Kerberos. &prompt.root; ext_srvtab grunt Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Generating 'grunt-new-srvtab'.... Now, this command only generates a temporary file which must be renamed to srvtab so that all the server can pick it up. Use the mv command to move it into place on the original system: &prompt.root; mv grunt-new-srvtab srvtab If the file is for a client system, and the network is not deemed safe, then copy the client-new-srvtab to removable media and transport it by secure physical means. Be sure to rename it to srvtab in the client's /etc/kerberosIV directory, and make sure it is mode 600: &prompt.root; mv grumble-new-srvtab srvtab &prompt.root; chmod 600 srvtab Populating the database We now have to add some user entries into the database. First let's create an entry for the user jane. Use the kdb_edit command to do this: &prompt.root; kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in [brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value. Principal name: jane Instance: <Not found>, Create [y] ? y Principal: jane, Instance: , kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter a secure password here Verifying password New Password: <---- re-enter the password here Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exit Testing it all out First we have to start the Kerberos daemons. NOTE that if you have correctly edited your /etc/rc.conf then this will happen automatically when you reboot. This is only necessary on the Kerberos server. Kerberos clients will automagically get what they need from the /etc/kerberosIV directory. &prompt.root; kerberos & Kerberos server starting Sleep forever on error Log file is /var/log/kerberos.log Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Current Kerberos master key version is 1 Local realm: GRONDAR.ZA &prompt.root; kadmind -n & KADM Server KADM0.0A initializing Please do not use 'kill -9' to kill this job, use a regular kill instead Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Now we can try using the kinit command to get a ticket for the id jane that we created above: &prompt.user; kinit jane MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za) Kerberos Initialization for "jane" Password: Try listing the tokens using klist to see if we really have them: &prompt.user; klist Ticket file: /tmp/tkt245 Principal: jane@GRONDAR.ZA Issued Expires Principal Apr 30 11:23:22 Apr 30 19:23:22 krbtgt.GRONDAR.ZA@GRONDAR.ZA Now try changing the password using passwd to check if the kpasswd daemon can get authorization to the Kerberos database: &prompt.user; passwd realm GRONDAR.ZA Old password for jane: New Password for jane: Verifying password New Password for jane: Password changed. Adding <command>su</command> privileges Kerberos allows us to give each user who needs root privileges their own separate supassword. We could now add an id which is authorized to su to root. This is controlled by having an instance of root associated with a principal. Using kdb_edit we can create the entry jane.root in the Kerberos database: &prompt.root; kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in [brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value. Principal name: jane Instance: root <Not found>, Create [y] ? y Principal: jane, Instance: root, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter a SECURE password here Verifying password New Password: <---- re-enter the password here Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? 12 <--- Keep this short! Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exit Now try getting tokens for it to make sure it works: &prompt.root; kinit jane.root MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za) Kerberos Initialization for "jane.root" Password: Now we need to add the user to root's .klogin file: &prompt.root; cat /root/.klogin jane.root@GRONDAR.ZA Now try doing the su: &prompt.user; su Password: and take a look at what tokens we have: &prompt.root; klist Ticket file: /tmp/tkt_root_245 Principal: jane.root@GRONDAR.ZA Issued Expires Principal May 2 20:43:12 May 3 04:43:12 krbtgt.GRONDAR.ZA@GRONDAR.ZA Using other commands In an earlier example, we created a principal called jane with an instance root. This was based on a user with the same name as the principal, and this is a Kerberos default; that a <principal>.<instance> of the form <username>.root will allow that <username> to su to root if the necessary entries are in the .klogin file in root's home directory: &prompt.root; cat /root/.klogin jane.root@GRONDAR.ZA Likewise, if a user has in their own home directory lines of the form: &prompt.user; cat ~/.klogin jane@GRONDAR.ZA jack@GRONDAR.ZA This allows anyone in the GRONDAR.ZA realm who has authenticated themselves to jane or jack (via kinit, see above) access to rlogin to jane's account or files on this system (grunt) via rlogin, rsh or rcp. For example, Jane now logs into another system, using Kerberos: &prompt.user; kinit MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za) Password: %prompt.user; rlogin grunt Last login: Mon May 1 21:14:47 from grumble Copyright (c) 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994 The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. FreeBSD BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995 Or Jack logs into Jane's account on the same machine (Jane having set up the .klogin file as above, and the person in charge of Kerberos having set up principal jack with a null instance: &prompt.user; kinit &prompt.user; rlogin grunt -l jane MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za) Password: Last login: Mon May 1 21:16:55 from grumble Copyright (c) 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994 The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. FreeBSD BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995 Firewalls Contributed by &a.gpalmer; and &a.alex;. Firewalls are an area of increasing interest for people who are connected to the Internet, and are even finding applications on private networks to provide enhanced security. This section will hopefully explain what firewalls are, how to use them, and how to use the facilities provided in the FreeBSD kernel to implement them. People often think that having a firewall between your companies internal network and the Big Bad Internet will solve all your security problems. It may help, but a poorly setup firewall system is more of a security risk than not having one at all. A firewall can only add another layer of security to your systems, but they will not be able to stop a really determined hacker from penetrating your internal network. If you let internal security lapse because you believe your firewall to be impenetrable, you have just made the hackers job that bit easier. What is a firewall? There are currently two distinct types of firewalls in common use on the Internet today. The first type is more properly called a packet filtering router, where the kernel on a multi-homed machine chooses whether to forward or block packets based on a set of rules. The second type, known as proxy servers, rely on daemons to provide authentication and to forward packets, possibly on a multi-homed machine which has kernel packet forwarding disabled. Sometimes sites combine the two types of firewalls, so that only a certain machine (known as a bastion host) is allowed to send packets through a packet filtering router onto an internal network. Proxy services are run on the bastion host, which are generally more secure than normal authentication mechanisms. FreeBSD comes with a kernel packet filter (known as IPFW), which is what the rest of this section will concentrate on. Proxy servers can be built on FreeBSD from third party software, but there is such a variety of proxy servers available that it would be impossible to cover them in this document. Packet filtering routers A router is a machine which forwards packets between two or more networks. A packet filtering router has an extra piece of code in its kernel, which compares each packet to a list of rules before deciding if it should be forwarded or not. Most modern IP routing software has packet filtering code in it, which defaults to forwarding all packets. To enable the filters, you need to define a set of rules for the filtering code, so that it can decide if the packet should be allowed to pass or not. To decide if a packet should be passed on or not, the code looks through its set of rules for a rule which matches the contents of this packets headers. Once a match is found, the rule action is obeyed. The rule action could be to drop the packet, to forward the packet, or even to send an ICMP message back to the originator. Only the first match counts, as the rules are searched in order. Hence, the list of rules can be referred to as a rule chain. The packet matching criteria varies depending on the software used, but typically you can specify rules which depend on the source IP address of the packet, the destination IP address, the source port number, the destination port number (for protocols which support ports), or even the packet type (UDP, TCP, ICMP, etc). Proxy servers Proxy servers are machines which have had the normal system daemons (telnetd, ftpd, etc) replaced with special servers. These servers are called proxy servers as they normally only allow onward connections to be made. This enables you to run (for example) a proxy telnet server on your firewall host, and people can telnet in to your firewall from the outside, go through some authentication mechanism, and then gain access to the internal network (alternatively, proxy servers can be used for signals coming from the internal network and heading out). Proxy servers are normally more secure than normal servers, and often have a wider variety of authentication mechanisms available, including one-shot password systems so that even if someone manages to discover what password you used, they will not be able to use it to gain access to your systems as the password instantly expires. As they do not actually give users access to the host machine, it becomes a lot more difficult for someone to install backdoors around your security system. Proxy servers often have ways of restricting access further, so that only certain hosts can gain access to the servers, and often they can be set up so that you can limit which users can talk to which destination machine. Again, what facilities are available depends largely on what proxy software you choose. What does IPFW allow me to do? IPFW, the software supplied with FreeBSD, is a packet filtering and accounting system which resides in the kernel, and has a user-land control utility, ipfw8. Together, they allow you to define and query the rules currently used by the kernel in its routing decisions. There are two related parts to IPFW. The firewall section allows you to perform packet filtering. There is also an IP accounting section which allows you to track usage of your router, based on similar rules to the firewall section. This allows you to see (for example) how much traffic your router is getting from a certain machine, or how much WWW (World Wide Web) traffic it is forwarding. As a result of the way that IPFW is designed, you can use IPFW on non-router machines to perform packet filtering on incoming and outgoing connections. This is a special case of the more general use of IPFW, and the same commands and techniques should be used in this situation. Enabling IPFW on FreeBSD As the main part of the IPFW system lives in the kernel, you will need to add one or more options to your kernel configuration file, depending on what facilities you want, and recompile your kernel. See for more details on how to recompile your kernel. There are currently three kernel configuration options relevant to IPFW: options IPFIREWALL Compiles into the kernel the code for packet filtering. options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE Enables code to allow logging of packets through syslogd8. Without this option, even if you specify that packets should be logged in the filter rules, nothing will happen. options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE_LIMIT=10 Limits the number of packets logged through syslogd8 on a per entry basis. You may wish to use this option in hostile environments in which you want to log firewall activity, but do not want to be open to a denial of service attack via syslog flooding. When a chain entry reaches the packet limit specified, logging is turned off for that particular entry. To resume logging, you will need to reset the associated counter using the ipfw8 utility: &prompt.root; ipfw zero 4500 Where 4500 is the chain entry you wish to continue logging. Previous versions of FreeBSD contained an IPFIREWALL_ACCT option. This is now obsolete as the firewall code automatically includes accounting facilities. Configuring IPFW The configuration of the IPFW software is done through the ipfw8 utility. The syntax for this command looks quite complicated, but it is relatively simple once you understand its structure. There are currently four different command categories used by the utility: addition/deletion, listing, flushing, and clearing. Addition/deletion is used to build the rules that control how packets are accepted, rejected, and logged. Listing is used to examine the contents of your rule set (otherwise known as the chain) and packet counters (accounting). Flushing is used to remove all entries from the chain. Clearing is used to zero out one or more accounting entries. Altering the IPFW rules The syntax for this form of the command is: ipfw -N command index action log protocol addresses options There is one valid flag when using this form of the command: -N Resolve addresses and service names in output. The command given can be shortened to the shortest unique form. The valid commands are: add Add an entry to the firewall/accounting rule list delete Delete an entry from the firewall/accounting rule list Previous versions of IPFW used separate firewall and accounting entries. The present version provides packet accounting with each firewall entry. If an index value is supplied, it used to place the entry at a specific point in the chain. Otherwise, the entry is placed at the end of the chain at an index 100 greater than the last chain entry (this does not include the default policy, rule 65535, deny). The log option causes matching rules to be output to the system console if the kernel was compiled with IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE. Valid actions are: reject Drop the packet, and send an ICMP host or port unreachable (as appropriate) packet to the source. allow Pass the packet on as normal. (aliases: pass and accept) deny Drop the packet. The source is not notified via an ICMP message (thus it appears that the packet never arrived at the destination). count Update packet counters but do not allow/deny the packet based on this rule. The search continues with the next chain entry. Each action will be recognized by the shortest unambiguous prefix. The protocols which can be specified are: all Matches any IP packet icmp Matches ICMP packets tcp Matches TCP packets udp Matches UDP packets The address specification is: from address/maskport to address/markport via interface You can only specify port in conjunction with protocols which support ports (UDP and TCP). The is optional and may specify the IP address or domain name of a local IP interface, or an interface name (e.g. ed0) to match only packets coming through this interface. Interface unit numbers can be specified with an optional wildcard. For example, ppp* would match all kernel PPP interfaces. The syntax used to specify an address/mask is: address or address/mask-bits or address:mask-pattern A valid hostname may be specified in place of the IP address. is a decimal number representing how many bits in the address mask should be set. e.g. specifying 192.216.222.1/24 will create a mask which will allow any address in a class C subnet (in this case, 192.216.222) to be matched. is an IP address which will be logically AND'ed with the address given. The keyword any may be used to specify any IP address. The port numbers to be blocked are specified as: port,port,port… to specify either a single port or a list of ports, or port-port to specify a range of ports. You may also combine a single range with a list, but the range must always be specified first. The options available are: frag Matches if the packet is not the first fragment of the datagram. in Matches if the packet is on the way in. out Matches if the packet is on the way out. ipoptions spec Matches if the IP header contains the comma separated list of options specified in spec. The supported list of IP options are: ssrr (strict source route), lsrr (loose source route), rr (record packet route), and ts (timestamp). The absence of a particular option may be denoted with a leading !. established Matches if the packet is part of an already established TCP connection (i.e. it has the RST or ACK bits set). You can optimize the performance of the firewall by placing established rules early in the chain. setup Matches if the packet is an attempt to establish a TCP connection (the SYN bit set is set but the ACK bit is not). tcpflags flags Matches if the TCP header contains the comma separated list of flags. The supported flags are fin, syn, rst, psh, ack, and urg. The absence of a particular flag may be indicated by a leading !. icmptypes types Matches if the ICMP type is present in the list types. The list may be specified as any combination of ranges and/or individual types separated by commas. Commonly used ICMP types are: 0 echo reply (ping reply), 5 redirect, 8 echo request (ping request), and 11 time exceeded (used to indicate TTL expiration as with traceroute8). Listing the IPFW rules The syntax for this form of the command is: ipfw -a -t -N l There are three valid flags when using this form of the command: -a While listing, show counter values. This option is the only way to see accounting counters. -t Display the last match times for each chain entry. The time listing is incompatible with the input syntax used by the ipfw8 utility. -N Attempt to resolve given addresses and service names. Flushing the IPFW rules The syntax for flushing the chain is: ipfw flush This causes all entries in the firewall chain to be removed except the fixed default policy enforced by the kernel (index 65535). Use caution when flushing rules, the default deny policy will leave your system cut off from the network until allow entries are added to the chain. Clearing the IPFW packet counters The syntax for clearing one or more packet counters is: ipfw zero index When used without an index argument, all packet counters are cleared. If an index is supplied, the clearing operation only affects a specific chain entry. Example commands for ipfw This command will deny all packets from the host evil.hacker.org to the telnet port of the host nice.people.org by being forwarded by the router: &prompt.root ipfw add deny tcp from evil.hacker.org to nice.people.org 23 The next example denies and logs any TCP traffic from the entire hacker.org network (a class C) to the nice.people.org machine (any port). &prompt.root; ipfw add deny log tcp from evil.hacker.org/24 to nice.people.org If you do not want people sending X sessions to your internal network (a subnet of a class C), the following command will do the necessary filtering: &prompt.root; ipfw add deny tcp from any to my.org/28 6000 setup To see the accounting records: &prompt.root; ipfw -a list or in the short form &prompt.root; ipfw -a l You can also see the last time a chain entry was matched with: &prompt.root; ipfw -at l Building a packet filtering firewall The following suggestions are just that: suggestions. The requirements of each firewall are different and I cannot tell you how to build a firewall to meet your particular requirements. When initially setting up your firewall, unless you have a test bench setup where you can configure your firewall host in a controlled environment, I strongly recommend you use the logging version of the commands and enable logging in the kernel. This will allow you to quickly identify problem areas and cure them without too much disruption. Even after the initial setup phase is complete, I recommend using the logging for of `deny' as it allows tracing of possible attacks and also modification of the firewall rules if your requirements alter. If you use the logging versions of the accept command, it can generate large amounts of log data as one log line will be generated for every packet that passes through the firewall, so large ftp/http transfers, etc, will really slow the system down. It also increases the latencies on those packets as it requires more work to be done by the kernel before the packet can be passed on. syslogd with also start using up a lot more processor time as it logs all the extra data to disk, and it could quite easily fill the partition /var/log is located on. As currently supplied, FreeBSD does not have the ability to load firewall rules at boot time. My suggestion is to put a call to a shell script in the /etc/netstart script. Put the call early enough in the netstart file so that the firewall is configured before any of the IP interfaces are configured. This means that there is no window during which time your network is open. The actual script used to load the rules is entirely up to you. There is currently no support in the ipfw utility for loading multiple rules in the one command. The system I use is to use the command: &prompt.root; ipfw list to write a list of the current rules out to a file, and then use a text editor to prepend ipfw before all the lines. This will allow the script to be fed into /bin/sh and reload the rules into the kernel. Perhaps not the most efficient way, but it works. The next problem is what your firewall should actually do! This is largely dependent on what access to your network you want to allow from the outside, and how much access to the outside world you want to allow from the inside. Some general rules are: Block all incoming access to ports below 1024 for TCP. This is where most of the security sensitive services are, like finger, SMTP (mail) and telnet. Block all incoming UDP traffic. There are very few useful services that travel over UDP, and what useful traffic there is is normally a security threat (e.g. Suns RPC and NFS protocols). This has its disadvantages also, since UDP is a connectionless protocol, denying incoming UDP traffic also blocks the replies to outgoing UDP traffic. This can cause a problem for people (on the inside) using external archie (prospero) servers. If you want to allow access to archie, you'll have to allow packets coming from ports 191 and 1525 to any internal UDP port through the firewall. ntp is another service you may consider allowing through, which comes from port 123. Block traffic to port 6000 from the outside. Port 6000 is the port used for access to X11 servers, and can be a security threat (especially if people are in the habit of doing xhost + on their workstations). X11 can actually use a range of ports starting at 6000, the upper limit being how many X displays you can run on the machine. The upper limit as defined by RFC 1700 (Assigned Numbers) is 6063. Check what ports any internal servers use (e.g. SQL servers, etc). It is probably a good idea to block those as well, as they normally fall outside the 1-1024 range specified above. Another checklist for firewall configuration is available from CERT at ftp://ftp.cert.org/pub/tech_tips/packet_filtering As I said above, these are only guidelines. You will have to decide what filter rules you want to use on your firewall yourself. I cannot accept ANY responsibility if someone breaks into your network, even if you follow the advice given above. Printing Contributed by &a.kelly;30 September 1995 In order to use printers with FreeBSD, you will need to set them up to work with the Berkeley line printer spooling system, also known as the LPD spooling system. It is the standard printer control system in FreeBSD. This section introduces the LPD spooling system, often simply called LPD. If you are already familiar with LPD or another printer spooling system, you may wish to skip to section . What the Spooler Does LPD controls everything about a host's printers. It is responsible for a number of things: It controls access to attached printers and printers attached to other hosts on the network. It enables users to submit files to be printed; these submissions are known as jobs. It prevents multiple users from accessing a printer at the same time by maintaining a queue for each printer. It can print header pages (also known as banner or burst pages) so users can easily find jobs they have printed in a stack of printouts. It takes care of communications parameters for printers connected on serial ports. It can send jobs over the network to another LPD spooler on another host. It can run special filters to format jobs to be printed for various printer languages or printer capabilities. It can account for printer usage. Through a configuration file, and by providing the special filter programs, you can enable the LPD system to do all or some subset of the above for a great variety of printer hardware. Why You Should Use the Spooler If you are the sole user of your system, you may be wondering why you should bother with the spooler when you do not need access control, header pages, or printer accounting. While it is possible to enable direct access to a printer, you should use the spooler anyway since LPD prints jobs in the background; you do not have to wait for data to be copied to the printer. LPD can conveniently run a job to be printed through filters to add date/time headers or convert a special file format (such as a TeX DVI file) into a format the printer will understand. You will not have to do these steps manually. Many free and commercial programs that provide a print feature usually expect to talk to the spooler on your system. By setting up the spooling system, you will more easily support other software you may later add or already have. Setting Up the Spooling System To use printers with the LPD spooling system, you will need to set up both your printer hardware and the LPD software. This document describes two levels of setup: See section to learn how to connect a printer, tell LPD how to communicate with it, and print plain text files to the printer. See section to find out how to print a variety of special file formats, to print header pages, to print across a network, to control access to printers, and to do printer accounting. Simple Printer Setup This section tells how to configure printer hardware and the LPD software to use the printer. It teaches the basics: Section gives some hints on connecting the printer to a port on your computer. Section shows how to setup the LPD spooler configuration file /etc/printcap. If you are setting up a printer that uses a network protocol to accept data to print instead of a serial or parallel interface, see . Although this section is called Simple Printer Setup, it is actually fairly complex. Getting the printer to work with your computer and the LPD spooler is the hardest part. The advanced options like header pages and accounting are fairly easy once you get the printer working. Hardware Setup This section tells about the various ways you can connect a printer to your PC. It talks about the kinds of ports and cables, and also the kernel configuration you may need to enable FreeBSD to speak to the printer. If you have already connected your printer and have successfully printed with it under another operating system, you can probably skip to section . Ports and Cables Nearly all printers you can get for a PC today support one or both of the following interfaces: Serial interfaces use a serial port on your computer to send data to the printer. Serial interfaces are common in the computer industry and cables are readily available and also easy to construct. Serial interfaces sometimes need special cables and might require you to configure somewhat complex communications options. Parallel interfaces use a parallel port on your computer to send data to the printer. Parallel interfaces are common in the PC market. Cables are readily available but more difficult to construct by hand. There are usually no communications options with parallel interfaces, making their configuration exceedingly simple. Parallel interfaces are sometimes known as Centronics interfaces, named after the connector type on the printer. In general, serial interfaces are slower than parallel interfaces. Parallel interfaces usually offer just one-way communication (computer to printer) while serial gives you two-way. Many newer parallel ports can also receive data from the printer, but only few printers need to send data back to the computer. And FreeBSD does not support two-way parallel communication yet. Usually, the only time you need two-way communication with the printer is if the printer speaks PostScript. PostScript printers can be very verbose. In fact, PostScript jobs are actually programs sent to the printer; they need not produce paper at all and may return results directly to the computer. PostScript also uses two-way communication to tell the computer about problems, such as errors in the PostScript program or paper jams. Your users may be appreciative of such information. Furthermore, the best way to do effective accounting with a PostScript printer requires two-way communication: you ask the printer for its page count (how many pages it has printed in its lifetime), then send the user's job, then ask again for its page count. Subtract the two values and you know how much paper to charge the user. So, which interface should you use? If you need two-way communication, use a serial port. FreeBSD does not yet support two-way communication over a parallel port. If you do not need two-way communication and can pick parallel or serial, prefer the parallel interface. It keeps a serial port free for other peripherals—such as a terminal or a modem—and is faster most of the time. It is also easier to configure. Finally, use whatever works. Parallel Ports To hook up a printer using a parallel interface, connect the Centronics cable between the printer and the computer. The instructions that came with the printer, the computer, or both should give you complete guidance. Remember which parallel port you used on the computer. The first parallel port is /dev/lpt0 to FreeBSD; the second is /dev/lpt1, and so on. Serial Ports To hook up a printer using a serial interface, connect the proper serial cable between the printer and the computer. The instructions that came with the printer, the computer, or both should give you complete guidance. If you are unsure what the proper serial cable is, you may wish to try one of the following alternatives: A modem cable connects each pin of the connector on one end of the cable straight through to its corresponding pin of the connector on the other end. This type of cable is also known as a DTE-to-DCE cable. A null-modem cable connects some pins straight through, swaps others (send data to receive data, for example), and shorts some internally in each connector hood. This type of cable is also known as a DTE-to-DTE cable. A serial printer cable, required for some unusual printers, is like the null modem cable, but sends some signals to their counterparts instead of being internally shorted. You should also set up the communications parameters for the printer, usually through front-panel controls or DIP switches on the printer. Choose the highest bps (bits per second, sometimes baud rate) rate that both your computer and the printer can support. Choose 7 or 8 data bits; none, even, or odd parity; and 1 or 2 stop bits. Also choose a flow control protocol: either none, or XON/XOFF (also known as in-band or software) flow control. Remember these settings for the software configuration that follows. Software Setup This section describes the software setup necessary to print with the LPD spooling system in FreeBSD. Here is an outline of the steps involved: Configure your kernel, if necessary, for the port you are using for the printer; section tells you what you need to do. Set the communications mode for the parallel port, if you are using a parallel port; section gives details. Test if the operating system can send data to the printer. Section gives some suggestions on how to do this. Set up LPD for the printer by modifying the file /etc/printcap. Section shows you how. Kernel Configuration The operating system kernel is compiled to work with a specific set of devices. The serial or parallel interface for your printer is a part of that set. Therefore, it might be necessary to add support for an additional serial or parallel port if your kernel is not already configured for one. To find out if the kernel you are currently using supports a serial interface, type &prompt.root; dmesg | grep sioN where N is the number of the serial port, starting from zero. If you see output similar to the following sio2 at 0x3e8-0x3ef irq 5 on isa sio2: type 16550A then the kernel supports the port. To find out if the kernel supports a parallel interface, type &prompt.root; dmesg | grep lptN where N is the number of the parallel port, starting from zero. If you see output similar to the following lpt0 at 0x378-0x37f on isa then the kernel supports the port. You might have to reconfigure your kernel in order for the operating system to recognize and use the parallel or serial port you are using for the printer. To add support for a serial port, see the section on kernel configuration. To add support for a parallel port, see that section and the section that follows. Adding <filename>/dev</filename> Entries for the Ports Even though the kernel may support communication along a serial or parallel port, you will still need a software interface through which programs running on the system can send and receive data. That is what entries in the /dev directory are for. To add a /dev entry for a port: Become root with the su command. Enter the root password when prompted. Change to the /dev directory: &prompt.root; cd /dev Type &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV port where port is the device entry for the port you want to make. Use lpt0 for the first parallel port, lpt1 for the second, and so on; use ttyd0 for the first serial port, ttyd1 for the second, and so on. Type &prompt.root; ls -l port to make sure the device entry got created. Setting the Communication Mode for the Parallel Port When you are using the parallel interface, you can choose whether FreeBSD should use interrupt-driven or polled communication with the printer. The interrupt-driven method is the default with the GENERIC kernel. With this method, the operating system uses an IRQ line to determine when the printer is ready for data. The polled method directs the operating system to repeatedly ask the printer if it is ready for more data. When it responds ready, the kernel sends more data. The interrupt-driven method is somewhat faster but uses up a precious IRQ line. You should use whichever one works. You can set the communications mode in two ways: by configuring the kernel or by using the lptcontrol program. To set the communications mode by configuring the kernel: Edit your kernel configuration file. Look for or add an lpt0 entry. If you are setting up the second parallel port, use lpt1 instead. Use lpt2 for the third port, and so on. If you want interrupt-driven mode, add the irq specifier: device lpt0 at isa? port? tty irq N vector lptintr where N is the IRQ number for your computer's parallel port. If you want polled mode, do not add the irq specifier: device lpt0 at isa? port? tty vector lptintr Save the file. Then configure, build, and install the kernel, then reboot. See for more details. To set the communications mode with lptcontrol: Type &prompt.root; lptcontrol -i -u N to set interrupt-driven mode for lptN. Type &prompt.root; lptcontrol -p -u N to set polled-mode for lptN. You could put these commands in your /etc/rc.local file to set the mode each time your system boots. See lptcontrol8 for more information. Checking Printer Communications Before proceeding to configure the spooling system, you should make sure the operating system can successfully send data to your printer. It is a lot easier to debug printer communication and the spooling system separately. To test the printer, we will send some text to it. For printers that can immediately print characters sent to them, the program lptest is perfect: it generates all 96 printable ASCII characters in 96 lines. For a PostScript (or other language-based) printer, we will need a more sophisticated test. A small PostScript program, such as the following, will suffice: %!PS 100 100 moveto 300 300 lineto stroke 310 310 moveto /Helvetica findfont 12 scalefont setfont (Is this thing working?) show showpage When this document refers to a printer language, I am assuming a language like PostScript, and not Hewlett Packard's PCL. Although PCL has great functionality, you can intermingle plain text with its escape sequences. PostScript cannot directly print plain text, and that is the kind of printer language for which we must make special accommodations. Checking a Parallel Printer This section tells you how to check if FreeBSD can communicate with a printer connected to a parallel port. To test a printer on a parallel port: Become root with su. Send data to the printer. If the printer can print plain text, then use lptest. Type: &prompt.root; lptest > /dev/lptN where N is the number of the parallel port, starting from zero. If the printer understands PostScript or other printer language, then send a small program to the printer. Type &prompt.root; cat > /dev/lptN Then, line by line, type the program carefully as you cannot edit a line once you have pressed RETURN or ENTER. When you have finished entering the program, press CONTROL+D, or whatever your end of file key is. Alternatively, you can put the program in a file and type &prompt.root; cat file > /dev/lptN where file is the name of the file containing the program you want to send to the printer. You should see something print. Do not worry if the text does not look right; we will fix such things later. Checking a Serial Printer This section tells you how to check if FreeBSD can communicate with a printer on a serial port. To test a printer on a serial port: Become root with su. Edit the file /etc/remote. Add the following entry: printer:dv=/dev/port:br#bps-rate:pa=parity where port is the device entry for the serial port (ttyd0, ttyd1, etc.), bps-rate is the bits-per-second rate at which the printer communicates, and parity is the parity required by the printer (either even, odd, none, or zero). Here is a sample entry for a printer connected via a serial line to the third serial port at 19200 bps with no parity: printer:dv=/dev/ttyd2:br#19200:pa=none Connect to the printer with tip. Type: &prompt.root; tip printer If this step does not work, edit the file /etc/remote again and try using /dev/cuaaN instead of /dev/ttydN. Send data to the printer. If the printer can print plain text, then use lptest. Type: ~$lptest If the printer understands PostScript or other printer language, then send a small program to the printer. Type the program, line by line, very carefully as backspacing or other editing keys may be significant to the printer. You may also need to type a special end-of-file key for the printer so it knows it received the whole program. For PostScript printers, press CONTROL+D. Alternatively, you can put the program in a file and type ~>file where file is the name of the file containing the program. After tip sends the file, press any required end-of-file key. You should see something print. Do not worry if the text does not look right; we will fix that later. Enabling the Spooler: The <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> File At this point, your printer should be hooked up, your kernel configured to communicate with it (if necessary), and you have been able to send some simple data to the printer. Now, we are ready to configure LPD to control access to your printer. You configure LPD by editing the file /etc/printcap. The LPD spooling system reads this file each time the spooler is used, so updates to the file take immediate effect. The format of the printcap file is straightforward. Use your favorite text editor to make changes to /etc/printcap. The format is identical to other capability files like /usr/share/misc/termcap and /etc/remote. For complete information about the format, see the cgetent3. The simple spooler configuration consists of the following steps: Pick a name (and a few convenient aliases) for the printer, and put them in the /etc/printcap file; see . Turn off header pages (which are on by default) by inserting the sh capability; see . Make a spooling directory, and specify its location with the sd capability; see . Set the /dev entry to use for the printer, and note it in /etc/printcap with the lp capability; see . Also, if the printer is on a serial port, set up the communication parameters with the fs, fc, xs, and xc capabilities; see . Install a plain text input filter; see Test the setup by printing something with the lpr command; see and . Language-based printers, such as PostScript printers, cannot directly print plain text. The simple setup outlined above and described in the following sections assumes that if you are installing such a printer you will print only files that the printer can understand. Users often expect that they can print plain text to any of the printers installed on your system. Programs that interface to LPD to do their printing usually make the same assumption. If you are installing such a printer and want to be able to print jobs in the printer language and print plain text jobs, you are strongly urged to add an additional step to the simple setup outlined above: install an automatic plain-text-to-PostScript (or other printer language) conversion program. Section tells how to do this. Naming the Printer The first (easy) step is to pick a name for your printer. It really does not matter whether you choose functional or whimsical names since you can also provide a number aliases for the printer. At least one of the printers specified in the /etc/printcap should have the alias lp. This is the default printer's name. If users do not have the PRINTER environment variable nor specify a printer name on the command line of any of the LPD commands, then lp will be the default printer they get to use. Also, it is common practice to make the last alias for a printer be a full description of the printer, including make and model. Once you have picked a name and some common aliases, put them in the /etc/printcap file. The name of the printer should start in the leftmost column. Separate each alias with a vertical bar and put a colon after the last alias. In the following example, we start with a skeletal /etc/printcap that defines two printers (a Diablo 630 line printer and a Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript laser printer): # # /etc/printcap for host rose # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4: In this example, the first printer is named rattan and has as aliases line, diablo, lp, and Diablo 630 Line Printer. Since it has the alias lp, it is also the default printer. The second is named bamboo, and has as aliases ps, PS, S, panasonic, and Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4. Suppressing Header Pages The LPD spooling system will by default print a header page for each job. The header page contains the user name who requested the job, the host from which the job came, and the name of the job, in nice large letters. Unfortunately, all this extra text gets in the way of debugging the simple printer setup, so we will suppress header pages. To suppress header pages, add the sh capability to the entry for the printer in /etc/printcap. Here is the example /etc/printcap with sh added: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - no header pages anywhere # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh: Note how we used the correct format: the first line starts in the leftmost column, and subsequent lines are indented with a single TAB. Every line in an entry except the last ends in a backslash character. Making the Spooling Directory The next step in the simple spooler setup is to make a spooling directory, a directory where print jobs reside until they are printed, and where a number of other spooler support files live. Because of the variable nature of spooling directories, it is customary to put these directories under /var/spool. It is not necessary to backup the contents of spooling directories, either. Recreating them is as simple as running mkdir. It is also customary to make the directory with a name that is identical to the name of the printer, as shown below: &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/printer-name However, if you have a lot of printers on your network, you might want to put the spooling directories under a single directory that you reserve just for printing with LPD. We will do this for our two example printers rattan and bamboo: &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/lpd &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/lpd/rattan &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/lpd/bamboo If you are concerned about the privacy of jobs that users print, you might want to protect the spooling directory so it is not publicly accessible. Spooling directories should be owned and be readable, writable, and searchable by user daemon and group daemon, and no one else. We will do this for our example printers: &prompt.root; chown daemon.daemon /var/spool/lpd/rattan &prompt.root; chown daemon.daemon /var/spool/lpd/bamboo &prompt.root; chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/rattan &prompt.root; chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/bamboo Finally, you need to tell LPD about these directories using the /etc/printcap file. You specify the pathname of the spooling directory with the sd capability: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - added spooling directories # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo: Note that the name of the printer starts in the first column but all other entries describing the printer should be indented with a tab and each line escaped with a backslash. If you do not specify a spooling directory with sd, the spooling system will use /var/spool/lpd as a default. Identifying the Printer Device In section , we identified which entry in the /dev directory FreeBSD will use to communicate with the printer. Now, we tell LPD that information. When the spooling system has a job to print, it will open the specified device on behalf of the filter program (which is responsible for passing data to the printer). List the /dev entry pathname in the /etc/printcap file using the lp capability. In our running example, let us assume that rattan is on the first parallel port, and bamboo is on a sixth serial port; here are the additions to /etc/printcap: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - identified what devices to use # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5: If you do not specify the lp capability for a printer in your /etc/printcap file, LPD uses /dev/lp as a default. /dev/lp currently does not exist in FreeBSD. If the printer you are installing is connected to a parallel port, skip to the section . Otherwise, be sure to follow the instructions in the next section. Configuring Spooler Communication Parameters For printers on serial ports, LPD can set up the bps rate, parity, and other serial communication parameters on behalf of the filter program that sends data to the printer. This is advantageous since It lets you try different communication parameters by simply editing the /etc/printcap file; you do not have to recompile the filter program. It enables the spooling system to use the same filter program for multiple printers which may have different serial communication settings. The following /etc/printcap capabilities control serial communication parameters of the device listed in the lp capability: br#bps-rate Sets the communications speed of the device to bps-rate, where bps-rate can be 50, 75, 110, 134, 150, 200, 300, 600, 1200, 1800, 2400, 4800, 9600, 19200, or 38400 bits-per-second. fc#clear-bits Clears the flag bits clear-bits in the sgttyb structure after opening the device. fs#set-bits Sets the flag bits set-bits in the sgttyb structure. xc#clear-bits Clears local mode bits clear-bits after opening the device. xs#set-bits Sets local mode bits set-bits. For more information on the bits for the fc, fs, xc, and xs capabilities, see the file /usr/include/sys/ioctl_compat.h. When LPD opens the device specified by the lp capability, it reads the flag bits in the sgttyb structure; it clears any bits in the fc capability, then sets bits in the fs capability, then applies the resultant setting. It does the same for the local mode bits as well. Let us add to our example printer on the sixth serial port. We will set the bps rate to 38400. For the flag bits, we will set the TANDEM, ANYP, LITOUT, FLUSHO, and PASS8 flags. For the local mode bits, we will set the LITOUT and PASS8 flags: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000c1:xs#0x820: Installing the Text Filter We are now ready to tell LPD what text filter to use to send jobs to the printer. A text filter, also known as an input filter, is a program that LPD runs when it has a job to print. When LPD runs the text filter for a printer, it sets the filter's standard input to the job to print, and its standard output to the printer device specified with the lp capability. The filter is expected to read the job from standard input, perform any necessary translation for the printer, and write the results to standard output, which will get printed. For more information on the text filter, see section . For our simple printer setup, the text filter can be a small shell script that just executes /bin/cat to send the job to the printer. FreeBSD comes with another filter called lpf that handles backspacing and underlining for printers that might not deal with such character streams well. And, of course, you can use any other filter program you want. The filter lpf is described in detail in section . First, let us make the shell script /usr/local/libexec/if-simple be a simple text filter. Put the following text into that file with your favorite text editor: #!/bin/sh # # if-simple - Simple text input filter for lpd # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/if-simple # # Simply copies stdin to stdout. Ignores all filter arguments. /bin/cat && exit 0 exit 2 Make the file executable: &prompt.root; chmod 555 /usr/local/libexec/if-simple And then tell LPD to use it by specifying it with the if capability in /etc/printcap. We will add it to the two printers we have so far in the example /etc/printcap: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - added text filter # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: Trying It Out You have reached the end of the simple LPD setup. Unfortunately, congratulations are not quite yet in order, since we still have to test the setup and correct any problems. To test the setup, try printing something. To print with the LPD system, you use the command lpr, which submits a job for printing. You can combine lpr with the lptest program, introduced in section to generate some test text. To test the simple LPD setup: Type: &prompt.root; lptest 20 5 | lpr -Pprinter-name Where printer-name is a the name of a printer (or an alias) specified in /etc/printcap. To test the default printer, type lpr without any argument. Again, if you are testing a printer that expects PostScript, send a PostScript program in that language instead of using lptest. You can do so by putting the program in a file and typing lpr file. For a PostScript printer, you should get the results of the program. If you are using lptest, then your results should look like the following: !"#$%&'()*+,-./01234 "#$%&'()*+,-./012345 #$%&'()*+,-./0123456 $%&'()*+,-./01234567 %&'()*+,-./012345678 To further test the printer, try downloading larger programs (for language-based printers) or running lptest with different arguments. For example, lptest 80 60 will produce 60 lines of 80 characters each. If the printer did not work, see the next section, . Troubleshooting After performing the simple test with lptest, you might have gotten one of the following results instead of the correct printout: It worked, after awhile; or, it did not eject a full sheet. The printer printed the above, but it sat for awhile and did nothing. In fact, you might have needed to press a PRINT REMAINING or FORM FEED button on the printer to get any results to appear. If this is the case, the printer was probably waiting to see if there was any more data for your job before it printed anything. To fix this problem, you can have the text filter send a FORM FEED character (or whatever is necessary) to the printer. This is usually sufficient to have the printer immediately print any text remaining in its internal buffer. It is also useful to make sure each print job ends on a full sheet, so the next job does not start somewhere on the middle of the last page of the previous job. The following replacement for the shell script /usr/local/libexec/if-simple prints a form feed after it sends the job to the printer: #!/bin/sh # # if-simple - Simple text input filter for lpd # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/if-simple # # Simply copies stdin to stdout. Ignores all filter arguments. # Writes a form feed character (\f) after printing job. /bin/cat && printf "\f" && exit 0 exit 2 It produced the staircase effect. You got the following on paper: !"#$%&'()*+,-./01234 "#$%&'()*+,-./012345 #$%&'()*+,-./0123456 You have become another victim of the staircase effect, caused by conflicting interpretations of what characters should indicate a new-line. UNIX-style operating systems use a single character: ASCII code 10, the line feed (LF). MS-DOS, OS/2, and others uses a pair of characters, ASCII code 10 and ASCII code 13 (the carriage return or CR). Many printers use the MS-DOS convention for representing new-lines. When you print with FreeBSD, your text used just the line feed character. The printer, upon seeing a line feed character, advanced the paper one line, but maintained the same horizontal position on the page for the next character to print. That is what the carriage return is for: to move the location of the next character to print to the left edge of the paper. Here is what FreeBSD wants your printer to do: Printer received CR Printer prints CR Printer received LF Printer prints CR + LF Here are some ways to achieve this: Use the printer's configuration switches or control panel to alter its interpretation of these characters. Check your printer's manual to find out how to do this. If you boot your system into other operating systems besides FreeBSD, you may have to reconfigure the printer to use a an interpretation for CR and LF characters that those other operating systems use. You might prefer one of the other solutions, below. Have FreeBSD's serial line driver automatically convert LF to CR+LF. Of course, this works with printers on serial ports only. To enable this feature, set the CRMOD bit in fs capability in the /etc/printcap file for the printer. Send an escape code to the printer to have it temporarily treat LF characters differently. Consult your printer's manual for escape codes that your printer might support. When you find the proper escape code, modify the text filter to send the code first, then send the print job. Here is an example text filter for printers that understand the Hewlett-Packard PCL escape codes. This filter makes the printer treat LF characters as a LF and CR; then it sends the job; then it sends a form feed to eject the last page of the job. It should work with nearly all Hewlett Packard printers. #!/bin/sh # # hpif - Simple text input filter for lpd for HP-PCL based printers # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpif # # Simply copies stdin to stdout. Ignores all filter arguments. # Tells printer to treat LF as CR+LF. Writes a form feed character # after printing job. printf "\033&k2G" && cat && printf "\f" && exit 0 exit 2 Here is an example /etc/printcap from a host called orchid. It has a single printer attached to its first parallel port, a Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si named teak. It is using the above script as its text filter: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif: It overprinted each line. The printer never advanced a line. All of the lines of text were printed on top of each other on one line. This problem is the opposite of the staircase effect, described above, and is much rarer. Somewhere, the LF characters that FreeBSD uses to end a line are being treated as CR characters to return the print location to the left edge of the paper, but not also down a line. Use the printer's configuration switches or control panel to enforce the following interpretation of LF and CR characters: Printer receives Printer prints CR CR LF CR + LF The printer lost characters. While printing, the printer did not print a few characters in each line. The problem might have gotten worse as the printer ran, losing more and more characters. The problem is that the printer cannot keep up with the speed at which the computer sends data over a serial line. (This problem should not occur with printers on parallel ports.) There are two ways to overcome the problem: If the printer supports XON/XOFF flow control, have FreeBSD use it by specifying the TANDEM bit in the fs capability. If the printer supports carrier flow control, specify the MDMBUF bit in the fs capability. Make sure the cable connecting the printer to the computer is correctly wired for carrier flow control. If the printer does not support any flow control, use some combination of the NLDELAY, TBDELAY, CRDELAY, VTDELAY, and BSDELAY bits in the fs capability to add appropriate delays to the stream of data sent to the printer. It printed garbage. The printer printed what appeared to be random garbage, but not the desired text. This is usually another symptom of incorrect communications parameters with a serial printer. Double-check the bps rate in the br capability, and the parity bits in the fs and fc capabilities; make sure the printer is using the same settings as specified in the /etc/printcap file. Nothing happened. If nothing happened, the problem is probably within FreeBSD and not the hardware. Add the log file (lf) capability to the entry for the printer you are debugging in the /etc/printcap file. For example, here is the entry for rattan, with the lf capability: rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple:\ :lf=/var/log/rattan.log Then, try printing again. Check the log file (in our example, /var/log/rattan.log) to see any error messages that might appear. Based on the messages you see, try to correct the problem. If you do not specify a lf capability, LPD uses /dev/console as a default. Using Printers This section tells you how to use printers you have setup with FreeBSD. Here is an overview of the user-level commands: lpr Print jobs lpq Check printer queues lprm Remove jobs from a printer's queue There is also an administrative command, lpc, described in the section , used to control printers and their queues. All three of the commands lpr, lprm, and lpq accept an option to specify on which printer/queue to operate, as listed in the /etc/printcap file. This enables you to submit, remove, and check on jobs for various printers. If you do not use the option, then these commands use the printer specified in the PRINTER environment variable. Finally, if you do not have a PRINTER environment variable, these commands default to the printer named lp. Hereafter, the terminology default printer means the printer named in the PRINTER environment variable, or the printer named lp when there is no PRINTER environment variable. Printing Jobs To print files, type &prompt.user; lpr filename ... This prints each of the listed files to the default printer. If you list no files, lpr reads data to print from standard input. For example, this command prints some important system files: &prompt.user; lpr /etc/host.conf /etc/hosts.equiv To select a specific printer, type &prompt.user; lpr -P printer-name filename ... This example prints a long listing of the current directory to the printer named rattan: &prompt.user; ls -l | lpr -P rattan Because no files were listed for the lpr command, lpr read the data to print from standard input, which was the output of the ls -l command. The lpr command can also accept a wide variety of options to control formatting, apply file conversions, generate multiple copies, and so forth. For more information, see the section . Checking Jobs When you print with lpr, the data you wish to print is put together in a package called a print job, which is sent to the LPD spooling system. Each printer has a queue of jobs, and your job waits in that queue along with other jobs from yourself and from other users. The printer prints those jobs in a first-come, first-served order. To display the queue for the default printer, type lpq. For a specific printer, use the option. For example, the command &prompt.user; lpq -P bamboo shows the queue for the printer named bamboo. Here is an example of the output of the lpq command: bamboo is ready and printing Rank Owner Job Files Total Size active kelly 9 /etc/host.conf, /etc/hosts.equiv 88 bytes 2nd kelly 10 (standard input) 1635 bytes 3rd mary 11 ... 78519 bytes This shows three jobs in the queue for bamboo. The first job, submitted by user kelly, got assigned job number 9. Every job for a printer gets a unique job number. Most of the time you can ignore the job number, but you will need it if you want to cancel the job; see section for details. Job number nine consists of two files; multiple files given on the lpr command line are treated as part of a single job. It is the currently active job (note the word active under the Rank column), which means the printer should be currently printing that job. The second job consists of data passed as the standard input to the lpr command. The third job came from user mary; it is a much larger job. The pathname of the files she's trying to print is too long to fit, so the lpq command just shows three dots. The very first line of the output from lpq is also useful: it tells what the printer is currently doing (or at least what LPD thinks the printer is doing). The lpq command also support a option to generate a detailed long listing. Here is an example of lpq -l: waiting for bamboo to become ready (offline ?) kelly: 1st [job 009rose] /etc/host.conf 73 bytes /etc/hosts.equiv 15 bytes kelly: 2nd [job 010rose] (standard input) 1635 bytes mary: 3rd [job 011rose] /home/orchid/mary/research/venus/alpha-regio/mapping 78519 bytes Removing Jobs If you change your mind about printing a job, you can remove the job from the queue with the lprm command. Often, you can even use lprm to remove an active job, but some or all of the job might still get printed. To remove a job from the default printer, first use lpq to find the job number. Then type: &prompt.user; lprm job-number To remove the job from a specific printer, add the option. The following command removes job number 10 from the queue for the printer bamboo: &prompt.user; lprm -P bamboo 10 The lprm command has a few shortcuts: lprm - Removes all jobs (for the default printer) belonging to you. lprm user Removes all jobs (for the default printer) belonging to user. The superuser can remove other users' jobs; you can remove only your own jobs. lprm With no job number, user name, or appearing on the command line, lprm removes the currently active job on the default printer, if it belongs to you. The superuser can remove any active job. Just use the option with the above shortcuts to operate on a specific printer instead of the default. For example, the following command removes all jobs for the current user in the queue for the printer named rattan: &prompt.user; lprm -P rattan - If you are working in a networked environment, lprm will let you remove jobs only from the host from which the jobs were submitted, even if the same printer is available from other hosts. The following command sequence demonstrates this: &prompt.user; lpr -P rattan myfile &prompt.user; rlogin orchid &prompt.user; lpq -P rattan Rank Owner Job Files Total Size active seeyan 12 ... 49123 bytes 2nd kelly 13 myfile 12 bytes &prompt.user; lprm -P rattan 13 rose: Permission denied &prompt.user; logout &prompt.user; lprm -P rattan 13 dfA013rose dequeued cfA013rose dequeued Beyond Plain Text: Printing Options The lpr command supports a number of options that control formatting text, converting graphic and other file formats, producing multiple copies, handling of the job, and more. This section describes the options. Formatting and Conversion Options The following lpr options control formatting of the files in the job. Use these options if the job does not contain plain text or if you want plain text formatted through the pr utility. For example, the following command prints a DVI file (from the TeX typesetting system) named fish-report.dvi to the printer named bamboo: &prompt.user; lpr -P bamboo -d fish-report.dvi These options apply to every file in the job, so you cannot mix (say) DVI and ditroff files together in a job. Instead, submit the files as separate jobs, using a different conversion option for each job. All of these options except and require conversion filters installed for the destination printer. For example, the option requires the DVI conversion filter. Section gives details. Print cifplot files. Print DVI files. Print FORTRAN text files. Print plot data. Indent the output by number columns; if you omit number, indent by 8 columns. This option works only with certain conversion filters. Do not put any space between the and the number. Print literal text data, including control characters. Print ditroff (device independent troff) data. -p Format plain text with pr before printing. See pr1 for more information. Use title on the pr header instead of the file name. This option has effect only when used with the option. Print troff data. Print raster data. Here is an example: this command prints a nicely formatted version of the ls manual page on the default printer: &prompt.user; zcat /usr/share/man/man1/ls.1.gz | troff -t -man | lpr -t The zcat command uncompresses the source of the ls manual page and passes it to the troff command, which formats that source and makes GNU troff output and passes it to lpr, which submits the job to the LPD spooler. Because we used the option to lpr, the spooler will convert the GNU troff output into a format the default printer can understand when it prints the job. Job Handling Options The following options to lpr tell LPD to handle the job specially: -# copies Produce a number of copies of each file in the job instead of just one copy. An administrator may disable this option to reduce printer wear-and-tear and encourage photocopier usage. See section . This example prints three copies of parser.c followed by three copies of parser.h to the default printer: &prompt.user; lpr -#3 parser.c parser.h -m Send mail after completing the print job. With this option, the LPD system will send mail to your account when it finishes handling your job. In its message, it will tell you if the job completed successfully or if there was an error, and (often) what the error was. -s Do not copy the files to the spooling directory, but make symbolic links to them instead. If you are printing a large job, you probably want to use this option. It saves space in the spooling directory (your job might overflow the free space on the filesystem where the spooling directory resides). It saves time as well since LPD will not have to copy each and every byte of your job to the spooling directory. There is a drawback, though: since LPD will refer to the original files directly, you cannot modify or remove them until they have been printed. If you are printing to a remote printer, LPD will eventually have to copy files from the local host to the remote host, so the option will save space only on the local spooling directory, not the remote. It is still useful, though. -r Remove the files in the job after copying them to the spooling directory, or after printing them with the option. Be careful with this option! Header Page Options These options to lpr adjust the text that normally appears on a job's header page. If header pages are suppressed for the destination printer, these options have no effect. See section for information about setting up header pages. -C text Replace the hostname on the header page with text. The hostname is normally the name of the host from which the job was submitted. -J text Replace the job name on the header page with text. The job name is normally the name of the first file of the job, or stdin if you are printing standard input. -h Do not print any header page. At some sites, this option may have no effect due to the way header pages are generated. See for details. Administrating Printers As an administrator for your printers, you have had to install, set up, and test them. Using the lpc command, you can interact with your printers in yet more ways. With lpc, you can Start and stop the printers Enable and disable their queues Rearrange the order of the jobs in each queue. First, a note about terminology: if a printer is stopped, it will not print anything in its queue. Users can still submit jobs, which will wait in the queue until the printer is started or the queue is cleared. If a queue is disabled, no user (except root) can submit jobs for the printer. An enabled queue allows jobs to be submitted. A printer can be started for a disabled queue, in which case it will continue to print jobs in the queue until the queue is empty. In general, you have to have root privileges to use the lpc command. Ordinary users can use the lpc command to get printer status and to restart a hung printer only. Here is a summary of the lpc commands. Most of the commands takes a printer-name argument to tell on which printer to operate. You can use all for the printer-name to mean all printers listed in /etc/printcap. abort printer-name Cancel the current job and stop the printer. Users can still submit jobs if the queue's enabled. clean printer-name Remove old files from the printer's spooling directory. Occasionally, the files that make up a job are not properly removed by LPD, particularly if there have been errors during printing or a lot of administrative activity. This command finds files that do not belong in the spooling directory and removes them. disable printer-name Disable queuing of new jobs. If the printer's started, it will continue to print any jobs remaining in the queue. The superuser (root) can always submit jobs, even to a disabled queue. This command is useful while you are testing a new printer or filter installation: disable the queue and submit jobs as root. Other users will not be able to submit jobs until you complete your testing and re-enable the queue with the enable command. down printer-name message Take a printer down. Equivalent to disable followed by stop. The message appears as the printer's status whenever a user checks the printer's queue with lpq or status with lpc status. enable printer-name Enable the queue for a printer. Users can submit jobs but the printer will not print anything until it is started. help command-name Print help on the command command-name. With no command-name, print a summary of the commands available. restart printer-name Start the printer. Ordinary users can use this command if some extraordinary circumstance hangs LPD, but they cannot start a printer stopped with either the stop or down commands. The restart command is equivalent to abort followed by start. start printer-name Start the printer. The printer will print jobs in its queue. stop printer-name Stop the printer. The printer will finish the current job and will not print anything else in its queue. Even though the printer is stopped, users can still submit jobs to an enabled queue. topq printer-name job-or-username Rearrange the queue for printer-name by placing the jobs with the listed job numbers or the jobs belonging to username at the top of the queue. For this command, you cannot use all as the printer-name. up printer-name Bring a printer up; the opposite of the down command. Equivalent to start followed by enable. lpc accepts the above commands on the command line. If you do not enter any commands, lpc enters an interactive mode, where you can enter commands until you type exit, quit, or end-of-file. Advanced Printer Setup This section describes filters for printing specially formatted files, header pages, printing across networks, and restricting and accounting for printer usage. Filters Although LPD handles network protocols, queuing, access control, and other aspects of printing, most of the real work happens in the filters. Filters are programs that communicate with the printer and handle its device dependencies and special requirements. In the simple printer setup, we installed a plain text filter—an extremely simple one that should work with most printers (section ). However, in order to take advantage of format conversion, printer accounting, specific printer quirks, and so on, you should understand how filters work. It will ultimately be the filter's responsibility to handle these aspects. And the bad news is that most of the time you have to provide filters yourself. The good news is that many are generally available; when they are not, they are usually easy to write. Also, FreeBSD comes with one, /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf, that works with many printers that can print plain text. (It handles backspacing and tabs in the file, and does accounting, but that is about all it does.) There are also several filters and filter components in the FreeBSD ports collection. Here is what you will find in this section: Section , tries to give an overview of a filter's role in the printing process. You should read this section to get an understanding of what is happening under the hood when LPD uses filters. This knowledge could help you anticipate and debug problems you might encounter as you install more and more filters on each of your printers. LPD expects every printer to be able to print plain text by default. This presents a problem for PostScript (or other language-based printers) which cannot directly print plain text. Section tells you what you should do to overcome this problem. I recommend reading this section if you have a PostScript printer. PostScript is a popular output format for many programs. Even some people (myself included) write PostScript code directly. But PostScript printers are expensive. Section tells how you can further modify a printer's text filter to accept and print PostScript data on a non-PostScript printer. I recommend reading this section if you do not have a PostScript printer. Section tells about a way you can automate the conversion of specific file formats, such as graphic or typesetting data, into formats your printer can understand. After reading this section, you should be able to set up your printers such that users can type lpr -t to print troff data, or lpr -d to print TeX DVI data, or lpr -v to print raster image data, and so forth. I recommend reading this section. Section tells all about a not often used feature of LPD: output filters. Unless you are printing header pages (see ), you can probably skip that section altogether. Section describes lpf, a fairly complete if simple text filter for line printers (and laser printers that act like line printers) that comes with FreeBSD. If you need a quick way to get printer accounting working for plain text, or if you have a printer which emits smoke when it sees backspace characters, you should definitely consider lpf. How Filters Work As mentioned before, a filter is an executable program started by LPD to handle the device-dependent part of communicating with the printer. When LPD wants to print a file in a job, it starts a filter program. It sets the filter's standard input to the file to print, its standard output to the printer, and its standard error to the error logging file (specified in the lf capability in /etc/printcap, or /dev/console by default). Which filter LPD starts and the filter's arguments depend on what is listed in the /etc/printcap file and what arguments the user specified for the job on the lpr command line. For example, if the user typed lpr -t, LPD would start the troff filter, listed in the tf capability for the destination printer. If the user wanted to print plain text, it would start the if filter (this is mostly true: see for details). There are three kinds of filters you can specify in /etc/printcap: The text filter, confusingly called the input filter in LPD documentation, handles regular text printing. Think of it as the default filter. LPD expects every printer to be able to print plain text by default, and it is the text filter's job to make sure backspaces, tabs, or other special characters do not confuse the printer. If you are in an environment where you have to account for printer usage, the text filter must also account for pages printed, usually by counting the number of lines printed and comparing that to the number of lines per page the printer supports. The text filter is started with the following argument list: filter-name -c -wwidth -llength -iindent -n login -h host acct-file where appears if the job's submitted with lpr -l width is the value from the pw (page width) capability specified in /etc/printcap, default 132 length is the value from the pl (page length) capability, default 66 indent is the amount of the indentation from lpr -i, default 0 login is the account name of the user printing the file host is the host name from which the job was submitted acct-file is the name of the accounting file from the af capability. A conversion filter converts a specific file format into one the printer can render onto paper. For example, ditroff typesetting data cannot be directly printed, but you can install a conversion filter for ditroff files to convert the ditroff data into a form the printer can digest and print. Section tells all about them. Conversion filters also need to do accounting, if you need printer accounting. Conversion filters are started with the following arguments: filter-name -xpixel-width -ypixel-height -n login -h host acct-file where pixel-width is the value from the px capability (default 0) and pixel-height is the value from the py capability (default 0). The output filter is used only if there is no text filter, or if header pages are enabled. In my experience, output filters are rarely used. Section describe them. There are only two arguments to an output filter: filter-name -wwidth -llength which are identical to the text filters and arguments. Filters should also exit with the following exit status: exit 0 If the filter printed the file successfully. exit 1 If the filter failed to print the file but wants LPD to try to print the file again. LPD will restart a filter if it exits with this status. exit 2 If the filter failed to print the file and does not want LPD to try again. LPD will throw out the file. The text filter that comes with the FreeBSD release, /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf, takes advantage of the page width and length arguments to determine when to send a form feed and how to account for printer usage. It uses the login, host, and accounting file arguments to make the accounting entries. If you are shopping for filters, see if they are LPD-compatible. If they are, they must support the argument lists described above. If you plan on writing filters for general use, then have them support the same argument lists and exit codes. Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers If you are the only user of your computer and PostScript (or other language-based) printer, and you promise to never send plain text to your printer and to never use features of various programs that will want to send plain text to your printer, then you do not need to worry about this section at all. But, if you would like to send both PostScript and plain text jobs to the printer, then you are urged to augment your printer setup. To do so, we have the text filter detect if the arriving job is plain text or PostScript. All PostScript jobs must start with %! (for other printer languages, see your printer documentation). If those are the first two characters in the job, we have PostScript, and can pass the rest of the job directly. If those are not the first two characters in the file, then the filter will convert the text into PostScript and print the result. How do we do this? If you have got a serial printer, a great way to do it is to install lprps. lprps is a PostScript printer filter which performs two-way communication with the printer. It updates the printer's status file with verbose information from the printer, so users and administrators can see exactly what the state of the printer is (such as toner low or paper jam). But more importantly, it includes a program called psif which detects whether the incoming job is plain text and calls textps (another program that comes with lprps) to convert it to PostScript. It then uses lprps to send the job to the printer. lprps is part of the FreeBSD ports collection (see ). You can fetch, build and install it yourself, of course. After installing lprps, just specify the pathname to the psif program that is part of lprps. If you installed lprps from the ports collection, use the following in the serial PostScript printer's entry in /etc/printcap: :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif: You should also specify the rw capability; that tells LPD to open the printer in read-write mode. If you have a parallel PostScript printer (and therefore cannot use two-way communication with the printer, which lprps needs), you can use the following shell script as the text filter: #!/bin/sh # # psif - Print PostScript or plain text on a PostScript printer # Script version; NOT the version that comes with lprps # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psif # read first_line first_two_chars=`expr "$first_line" : '\(..\)'` if [ "$first_two_chars" = "%!" ]; then # # PostScript job, print it. # echo $first_line && cat && printf "\004" && exit 0 exit 2 else # # Plain text, convert it, then print it. # ( echo $first_line; cat ) | /usr/local/bin/textps && printf "\004" && exit 0 exit 2 fi In the above script, textps is a program we installed separately to convert plain text to PostScript. You can use any text-to-PostScript program you wish. The FreeBSD ports collection (see ) includes a full featured text-to-PostScript program called a2ps that you might want to investigate. Simulating PostScript on Non-PostScript Printers PostScript is the de facto standard for high quality typesetting and printing. PostScript is, however, an expensive standard. Thankfully, Alladin Enterprises has a free PostScript work-alike called Ghostscript that runs with FreeBSD. Ghostscript can read most PostScript files and can render their pages onto a variety of devices, including many brands of non-PostScript printers. By installing Ghostscript and using a special text filter for your printer, you can make your non-PostScript printer act like a real PostScript printer. Ghostscript should be in the FreeBSD ports collection, if you would like to install it from there. You can fetch, build, and install it quite easily yourself, as well. To simulate PostScript, we have the text filter detect if it is printing a PostScript file. If it is not, then the filter will pass the file directly to the printer; otherwise, it will use Ghostscript to first convert the file into a format the printer will understand. Here is an example: the following script is a text filter for Hewlett Packard DeskJet 500 printers. For other printers, substitute the argument to the gs (Ghostscript) command. (Type gs -h to get a list of devices the current installation of Ghostscript supports.) #!/bin/sh # # ifhp - Print Ghostscript-simulated PostScript on a DeskJet 500 # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpif # # Treat LF as CR+LF: # printf "\033&k2G" || exit 2 # # Read first two characters of the file # read first_line first_two_chars=`expr "$first_line" : '\(..\)'` if [ "$first_two_chars" = "%!" ]; then # # It is PostScript; use Ghostscript to scan-convert and print it # /usr/local/bin/gs -dSAFER -dNOPAUSE -q -sDEVICE=djet500 -sOutputFile=- - \ && exit 0 else # # Plain text or HP/PCL, so just print it directly; print a form # at the end to eject the last page. # echo $first_line && cat && printf "\f" && exit 0 fi exit 2 Finally, you need to notify LPD of the filter via the if capability: :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif: That is it. You can type lpr plain.text and lpr whatever.ps and both should print successfully. Conversion Filters After completing the simple setup described in , the first thing you will probably want to do is install conversion filters for your favorite file formats (besides plain ASCII text). Why Install Conversion Filters? Conversion filters make printing various kinds of files easy. As an example, suppose we do a lot of work with the TeX typesetting system, and we have a PostScript printer. Every time we generate a DVI file from TeX, we cannot print it directly until we convert the DVI file into PostScript. The command sequence goes like this: &prompt.user; dvips seaweed-analysis.dvi &prompt.user; lpr seaweed-analysis.ps By installing a conversion filter for DVI files, we can skip the hand conversion step each time by having LPD do it for us. Now, each time we get a DVI file, we are just one step away from printing it: &prompt.user; lpr -d seaweed-analysis.dvi We got LPD to do the DVI file conversion for us by specifying the option. Section lists the conversion options. For each of the conversion options you want a printer to support, install a conversion filter and specify its pathname in /etc/printcap. A conversion filter is like the text filter for the simple printer setup (see section ) except that instead of printing plain text, the filter converts the file into a format the printer can understand. Which Conversions Filters Should I Install? You should install the conversion filters you expect to use. If you print a lot of DVI data, then a DVI conversion filter is in order. If you have got plenty of troff to print out, then you probably want a troff filter. The following table summarizes the filters that LPD works with, their capability entries for the /etc/printcap file, and how to invoke them with the lpr command: File type /etc/printcap capability lpr option cifplot cf DVI df plot gf ditroff nf FORTRAN text rf troff rf raster vf plain text if none, , or In our example, using lpr -d means the printer needs a df capability in its entry in /etc/printcap. Despite what others might contend, formats like FORTRAN text and plot are probably obsolete. At your site, you can give new meanings to these or any of the formatting options just by installing custom filters. For example, suppose you would like to directly print Printerleaf files (files from the Interleaf desktop publishing program), but will never print plot files. You could install a Printerleaf conversion filter under the gf capability and then educate your users that lpr -g mean print Printerleaf files. Installing Conversion Filters Since conversion filters are programs you install outside of the base FreeBSD installation, they should probably go under /usr/local. The directory /usr/local/libexec is a popular location, since they are specialized programs that only LPD will run; regular users should not ever need to run them. To enable a conversion filter, specify its pathname under the appropriate capability for the destination printer in /etc/printcap. In our example, we will add the DVI conversion filter to the entry for the printer named bamboo. Here is the example /etc/printcap file again, with the new df capability for the printer bamboo. # # /etc/printcap for host rose - added df filter for bamboo # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: The DVI filter is a shell script named /usr/local/libexec/psdf. Here is that script: #!bin/sh # # psdf - DVI to PostScript printer filter # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psdf # # Invoked by lpd when user runs lpr -d # exec /usr/local/bin/dvips -f | /usr/local/libexec/lprps "$@" This script runs dvips in filter mode (the argument) on standard input, which is the job to print. It then starts the PostScript printer filter lprps (see section ) with the arguments LPD passed to this script. lprps will use those arguments to account for the pages printed. More Conversion Filter Examples Since there is no fixed set of steps to install conversion filters, let me instead provide more examples. Use these as guidance to making your own filters. Use them directly, if appropriate. This example script is a raster (well, GIF file, actually) conversion filter for a Hewlett Packard LaserJet III-Si printer: #!/bin/sh # # hpvf - Convert GIF files into HP/PCL, then print # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpvf PATH=/usr/X11R6/bin:$PATH; export PATH giftopnm | ppmtopgm | pgmtopbm | pbmtolj -resolution 300 \ && exit 0 \ || exit 2 It works by converting the GIF file into a portable anymap, converting that into a portable graymap, converting that into a portable bitmap, and converting that into LaserJet/PCL-compatible data. Here is the /etc/printcap file with an entry for a printer using the above filter: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/hpvf: The following script is a conversion filter for troff data from the groff typesetting system for the PostScript printer named bamboo: #!/bin/sh # # pstf - Convert groff's troff data into PS, then print. # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/pstf # exec grops | /usr/local/libexec/lprps "$@" The above script makes use of lprps again to handle the communication with the printer. If the printer were on a parallel port, we would use this script instead: #!/bin/sh # # pstf - Convert groff's troff data into PS, then print. # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/pstf # exec grops That is it. Here is the entry we need to add to /etc/printcap to enable the filter: :tf=/usr/local/libexec/pstf: Here is an example that might make old hands at FORTRAN blush. It is a FORTRAN-text filter for any printer that can directly print plain text. We will install it for the printer teak: #!/bin/sh # # hprf - FORTRAN text filter for LaserJet 3si: # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hprf # printf "\033&k2G" && fpr && printf "\f" && exit 0 exit 2 And we will add this line to the /etc/printcap for the printer teak to enable this filter: :rf=/usr/local/libexec/hprf: Here is one final, somewhat complex example. We will add a DVI filter to the LaserJet printer teak introduced earlier. First, the easy part: updating /etc/printcap with the location of the DVI filter: :df=/usr/local/libexec/hpdf: Now, for the hard part: making the filter. For that, we need a DVI-to-LaserJet/PCL conversion program. The FreeBSD ports collection (see ) has one: dvi2xx is the name of the package. Installing this package gives us the program we need, dvilj2p, which converts DVI into LaserJet IIp, LaserJet III, and LaserJet 2000 compatible codes. dvilj2p makes the filter hpdf quite complex since dvilj2p cannot read from standard input. It wants to work with a filename. What is worse, the filename has to end in .dvi so using /dev/fd/0 for standard input is problematic. We can get around that problem by linking (symbolically) a temporary file name (one that ends in .dvi) to /dev/fd/0, thereby forcing dvilj2p to read from standard input. The only other fly in the ointment is the fact that we cannot use /tmp for the temporary link. Symbolic links are owned by user and group bin. The filter runs as user daemon. And the /tmp directory has the sticky bit set. The filter can create the link, but it will not be able clean up when done and remove it since the link will belong to a different user. Instead, the filter will make the symbolic link in the current working directory, which is the spooling directory (specified by the sd capability in /etc/printcap). This is a perfect place for filters to do their work, especially since there is (sometimes) more free disk space in the spooling directory than under /tmp. Here, finally, is the filter: #!/bin/sh # # hpdf - Print DVI data on HP/PCL printer # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpdf PATH=/usr/local/bin:$PATH; export PATH # # Define a function to clean up our temporary files. These exist # in the current directory, which will be the spooling directory # for the printer. # cleanup() { rm -f hpdf$$.dvi } # # Define a function to handle fatal errors: print the given message # and exit 2. Exiting with 2 tells LPD to do not try to reprint the # job. # fatal() { echo "$@" 1>&2 cleanup exit 2 } # # If user removes the job, LPD will send SIGINT, so trap SIGINT # (and a few other signals) to clean up after ourselves. # trap cleanup 1 2 15 # # Make sure we are not colliding with any existing files. # cleanup # # Link the DVI input file to standard input (the file to print). # ln -s /dev/fd/0 hpdf$$.dvi || fatal "Cannot symlink /dev/fd/0" # # Make LF = CR+LF # printf "\033&k2G" || fatal "Cannot initialize printer" # # Convert and print. Return value from dvilj2p does not seem to be # reliable, so we ignore it. # dvilj2p -M1 -q -e- dfhp$$.dvi # # Clean up and exit # cleanup exit 0 Automated Conversion: An Alternative To Conversion Filters All these conversion filters accomplish a lot for your printing environment, but at the cost forcing the user to specify (on the lpr command line) which one to use. If your users are not particularly computer literate, having to specify a filter option will become annoying. What is worse, though, is that an incorrectly specified filter option may run a filter on the wrong type of file and cause your printer to spew out hundreds of sheets of paper. Rather than install conversion filters at all, you might want to try having the text filter (since it is the default filter) detect the type of file it has been asked to print and then automatically run the right conversion filter. Tools such as file can be of help here. Of course, it will be hard to determine the differences between some file types—and, of course, you can still provide conversion filters just for them. The FreeBSD ports collection has a text filter that performs automatic conversion called apsfilter. It can detect plain text, PostScript, and DVI files, run the proper conversions, and print. Output Filters The LPD spooling system supports one other type of filter that we have not yet explored: an output filter. An output filter is intended for printing plain text only, like the text filter, but with many simplifications. If you are using an output filter but no text filter, then LPD starts an output filter once for the entire job instead of once for each file in the job. LPD does not make any provision to identify the start or the end of files within the job for the output filter. LPD does not pass the user's login or host to the filter, so it is not intended to do accounting. In fact, it gets only two arguments: filter-name -wwidth -llength where width is from the pw capability and length is from the pl capability for the printer in question. Do not be seduced by an output filter's simplicity. If you would like each file in a job to start on a different page an output filter will not work. Use a text filter (also known as an input filter); see section . Furthermore, an output filter is actually more complex in that it has to examine the byte stream being sent to it for special flag characters and must send signals to itself on behalf of LPD. However, an output filter is necessary if you want header pages and need to send escape sequences or other initialization strings to be able to print the header page. (But it is also futile if you want to charge header pages to the requesting user's account, since LPD does not give any user or host information to the output filter.) On a single printer, LPD allows both an output filter and text or other filters. In such cases, LPD will start the output filter to print the header page (see section ) only. LPD then expects the output filter to stop itself by sending two bytes to the filter: ASCII 031 followed by ASCII 001. When an output filter sees these two bytes (031, 001), it should stop by sending SIGSTOP to itself. When LPD's done running other filters, it will restart the output filter by sending SIGCONT to it. If there is an output filter but no text filter and LPD is working on a plain text job, LPD uses the output filter to do the job. As stated before, the output filter will print each file of the job in sequence with no intervening form feeds or other paper advancement, and this is probably not what you want. In almost all cases, you need a text filter. The program lpf, which we introduced earlier as a text filter, can also run as an output filter. If you need a quick-and-dirty output filter but do not want to write the byte detection and signal sending code, try lpf. You can also wrap lpf in a shell script to handle any initialization codes the printer might require. <command>lpf</command>: a Text Filter The program /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf that comes with FreeBSD binary distribution is a text filter (input filter) that can indent output (job submitted with lpr -i), allow literal characters to pass (job submitted with lpr -l), adjust the printing position for backspaces and tabs in the job, and account for pages printed. It can also act like an output filter. lpf is suitable for many printing environments. And although it has no capability to send initialization sequences to a printer, it is easy to write a shell script to do the needed initialization and then execute lpf. In order for lpf to do page accounting correctly, it needs correct values filled in for the pw and pl capabilities in the /etc/printcap file. It uses these values to determine how much text can fit on a page and how many pages were in a user's job. For more information on printer accounting, see . Header Pages If you have lots of users, all of them using various printers, then you probably want to consider header pages as a necessary evil. Header pages, also known as banner or burst pages identify to whom jobs belong after they are printed. They are usually printed in large, bold letters, perhaps with decorative borders, so that in a stack of printouts they stand out from the real documents that comprise users' jobs. They enable users to locate their jobs quickly. The obvious drawback to a header page is that it is yet one more sheet that has to be printed for every job, their ephemeral usefulness lasting not more than a few minutes, ultimately finding themselves in a recycling bin or rubbish heap. (Note that header pages go with each job, not each file in a job, so the paper waste might not be that bad.) The LPD system can provide header pages automatically for your printouts if your printer can directly print plain text. If you have a PostScript printer, you will need an external program to generate the header page; see . Enabling Header Pages In the , we turned off header pages by specifying sh (meaning suppress header) in the /etc/printcap file. To enable header pages for a printer, just remove the sh capability. Sounds too easy, right? You are right. You might have to provide an output filter to send initialization strings to the printer. Here is an example output filter for Hewlett Packard PCL-compatible printers: #!/bin/sh # # hpof - Output filter for Hewlett Packard PCL-compatible printers # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpof printf "\033&k2G" || exit 2 exec /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf Specify the path to the output filter in the of capability. See for more information. Here is an example /etc/printcap file for the printer teak that we introduced earlier; we enabled header pages and added the above output filter: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/hpvf:\ :of=/usr/local/libexec/hpof: Now, when users print jobs to teak, they get a header page with each job. If users want to spend time searching for their printouts, they can suppress header pages by submitting the job with lpr -h; see for more lpr options. LPD prints a form feed character after the header page. If your printer uses a different character or sequence of characters to eject a page, specify them with the ff capability in /etc/printcap. Controlling Header Pages By enabling header pages, LPD will produce a long header, a full page of large letters identifying the user, host, and job. Here is an example (kelly printed the job named outline from host rose): k ll ll k l l k l l k k eeee l l y y k k e e l l y y k k eeeeee l l y y kk k e l l y y k k e e l l y yy k k eeee lll lll yyy y y y y yyyy ll t l i t l oooo u u ttttt l ii n nnn eeee o o u u t l i nn n e e o o u u t l i n n eeeeee o o u u t l i n n e o o u uu t t l i n n e e oooo uuu u tt lll iii n n eeee r rrr oooo ssss eeee rr r o o s s e e r o o ss eeeeee r o o ss e r o o s s e e r oooo ssss eeee Job: outline Date: Sun Sep 17 11:04:58 1995 LPD appends a form feed after this text so the job starts on a new page (unless you have sf (suppress form feeds) in the destination printer's entry in /etc/printcap). If you prefer, LPD can make a short header; specify sb (short banner) in the /etc/printcap file. The header page will look like this: rose:kelly Job: outline Date: Sun Sep 17 11:07:51 1995 Also by default, LPD prints the header page first, then the job. To reverse that, specify hl (header last) in /etc/printcap. Accounting for Header Pages Using LPD's built-in header pages enforces a particular paradigm when it comes to printer accounting: header pages must be free of charge. Why? Because the output filter is the only external program that will have control when the header page is printed that could do accounting, and it is not provided with any user or host information or an accounting file, so it has no idea whom to charge for printer use. It is also not enough to just add one page to the text filter or any of the conversion filters (which do have user and host information) since users can suppress header pages with lpr -h. They could still be charged for header pages they did not print. Basically, lpr -h will be the preferred option of environmentally-minded users, but you cannot offer any incentive to use it. It is still not enough to have each of the filters generate their own header pages (thereby being able to charge for them). If users wanted the option of suppressing the header pages with lpr -h, they will still get them and be charged for them since LPD does not pass any knowledge of the option to any of the filters. So, what are your options? You can Accept LPD's paradigm and make header pages free. Install an alternative to LPD, such as LPDng or PLP. Section tells more about other spooling software you can substitute for LPD. Write a smart output filter. Normally, an output filter is not meant to do anything more than initialize a printer or do some simple character conversion. It is suited for header pages and plain text jobs (when there is no text (input) filter). But, if there is a text filter for the plain text jobs, then LPD will start the output filter only for the header pages. And the output filter can parse the header page text that LPD generates to determine what user and host to charge for the header page. The only other problem with this method is that the output filter still does not know what accounting file to use (it is not passed the name of the file from the af capability), but if you have a well-known accounting file, you can hard-code that into the output filter. To facilitate the parsing step, use the sh (short header) capability in /etc/printcap. Then again, all that might be too much trouble, and users will certainly appreciate the more generous system administrator who makes header pages free. Header Pages on PostScript Printers As described above, LPD can generate a plain text header page suitable for many printers. Of course, PostScript cannot directly print plain text, so the header page feature of LPD is useless—or mostly so. One obvious way to get header pages is to have every conversion filter and the text filter generate the header page. The filters should should use the user and host arguments to generate a suitable header page. The drawback of this method is that users will always get a header page, even if they submit jobs with lpr -h. Let us explore this method. The following script takes three arguments (user login name, host name, and job name) and makes a simple PostScript header page: #!/bin/sh # # make-ps-header - make a PostScript header page on stdout # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/make-ps-header # # # These are PostScript units (72 to the inch). Modify for A4 or # whatever size paper you are using: # page_width=612 page_height=792 border=72 # # Check arguments # if [ $# -ne 3 ]; then echo "Usage: `basename $0` <user> <host> <job>" 1>&2 exit 1 fi # # Save these, mostly for readability in the PostScript, below. # user=$1 host=$2 job=$3 date=`date` # # Send the PostScript code to stdout. # exec cat <<EOF %!PS % % Make sure we do not interfere with user's job that will follow % save % % Make a thick, unpleasant border around the edge of the paper. % $border $border moveto $page_width $border 2 mul sub 0 rlineto 0 $page_height $border 2 mul sub rlineto currentscreen 3 -1 roll pop 100 3 1 roll setscreen $border 2 mul $page_width sub 0 rlineto closepath 0.8 setgray 10 setlinewidth stroke 0 setgray % % Display user's login name, nice and large and prominent % /Helvetica-Bold findfont 64 scalefont setfont $page_width ($user) stringwidth pop sub 2 div $page_height 200 sub moveto ($user) show % % Now show the boring particulars % /Helvetica findfont 14 scalefont setfont /y 200 def [ (Job:) (Host:) (Date:) ] { 200 y moveto show /y y 18 sub def } forall /Helvetica-Bold findfont 14 scalefont setfont /y 200 def [ ($job) ($host) ($date) ] { 270 y moveto show /y y 18 sub def } forall % % That is it % restore showpage EOF Now, each of the conversion filters and the text filter can call this script to first generate the header page, and then print the user's job. Here is the DVI conversion filter from earlier in this document, modified to make a header page: #!/bin/sh # # psdf - DVI to PostScript printer filter # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psdf # # Invoked by lpd when user runs lpr -d # orig_args="$@" fail() { echo "$@" 1>&2 exit 2 } while getopts "x:y:n:h:" option; do case $option in x|y) ;; # Ignore n) login=$OPTARG ;; h) host=$OPTARG ;; *) echo "LPD started `basename $0` wrong." 1>&2 exit 2 ;; esac done [ "$login" ] || fail "No login name" [ "$host" ] || fail "No host name" ( /usr/local/libexec/make-ps-header $login $host "DVI File" /usr/local/bin/dvips -f ) | eval /usr/local/libexec/lprps $orig_args Notice how the filter has to parse the argument list in order to determine the user and host name. The parsing for the other conversion filters is identical. The text filter takes a slightly different set of arguments, though (see section ). As we have mentioned before, the above scheme, though fairly simple, disables the suppress header page option (the option) to lpr. If users wanted to save a tree (or a few pennies, if you charge for header pages), they would not be able to do so, since every filter's going to print a header page with every job. To allow users to shut off header pages on a per-job basis, you will need to use the trick introduced in section : write an output filter that parses the LPD-generated header page and produces a PostScript version. If the user submits the job with lpr -h, then LPD will not generate a header page, and neither will your output filter. Otherwise, your output filter will read the text from LPD and send the appropriate header page PostScript code to the printer. If you have a PostScript printer on a serial line, you can make use of lprps, which comes with an output filter, psof, which does the above. Note that psof does not charge for header pages. Networked Printing FreeBSD supports networked printing: sending jobs to remote printers. Networked printing generally refers to two different things: Accessing a printer attached to a remote host. You install a printer that has a conventional serial or parallel interface on one host. Then, you set up LPD to enable access to the printer from other hosts on the network. Section tells how to do this. Accessing a printer attached directly to a network. The printer has a network interface in addition (or in place of) a more conventional serial or parallel interface. Such a printer might work as follows: It might understand the LPD protocol and can even queue jobs from remote hosts. In this case, it acts just like a regular host running LPD. Follow the same procedure in section to set up such a printer. It might support a data stream network connection. In this case, you attach the printer to one host on the network by making that host responsible for spooling jobs and sending them to the printer. Section gives some suggestions on installing such printers. Printers Installed on Remote Hosts The LPD spooling system has built-in support for sending jobs to other hosts also running LPD (or are compatible with LPD). This feature enables you to install a printer on one host and make it accessible from other hosts. It also works with printers that have network interfaces that understand the LPD protocol. To enable this kind of remote printing, first install a printer on one host, the printer host, using the simple printer setup described in . Do any advanced setup in that you need. Make sure to test the printer and see if it works with the features of LPD you have enabled. If you are using a printer with a network interface that is compatible with LPD, then the printer host in the discussion below is the printer itself, and the printer name is the name you configured for the printer. See the documentation that accompanied your printer and/or printer-network interface. Then, on the other hosts you want to have access to the printer, make an entry in their /etc/printcap files with the following: Name the entry anything you want. For simplicity, though, you probably want to use the same name and aliases as on the printer host. Leave the lp capability blank, explicitly (:lp=:). Make a spooling directory and specify its location in the sd capability. LPD will store jobs here before they get sent to the printer host. Place the name of the printer host in the rm capability. Place the printer name on the printer host in the rp capability. That is it. You do not need to list conversion filters, page dimensions, or anything else in the /etc/printcap file. Here is an example. The host rose has two printers, bamboo and rattan. We will enable users on the host orchid to print to those printers. Here is the /etc/printcap file for orchid (back from section ). It already had the entry for the printer teak; we have added entries for the two printers on the host rose: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid - added (remote) printers on rose # # # teak is local; it is connected directly to orchid: # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/ifhp:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/vfhp:\ :of=/usr/local/libexec/ofhp: # # rattan is connected to rose; send jobs for rattan to rose: # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=rattan:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan: # # bamboo is connected to rose as well: # bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=bamboo:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo: Then, we just need to make spooling directories on orchid: &prompt.root; mkdir -p /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo &prompt.root; chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo &prompt.root; chown daemon.daemon /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo Now, users on orchid can print to rattan and bamboo. If, for example, a user on orchid typed &prompt.user; lpr -P bamboo -d sushi-review.dvi the LPD system on orchid would copy the job to the spooling directory /var/spool/lpd/bamboo and note that it was a DVI job. As soon as the host rose has room in its bamboo spooling directory, the two LPDs would transfer the file to rose. The file would wait in rose's queue until it was finally printed. It would be converted from DVI to PostScript (since bamboo is a PostScript printer) on rose. Printers with Networked Data Stream Interfaces Often, when you buy a network interface card for a printer, you can get two versions: one which emulates a spooler (the more expensive version), or one which just lets you send data to it as if you were using a serial or parallel port (the cheaper version). This section tells how to use the cheaper version. For the more expensive one, see the previous section . The format of the /etc/printcap file lets you specify what serial or parallel interface to use, and (if you are using a serial interface), what baud rate, whether to use flow control, delays for tabs, conversion of newlines, and more. But there is no way to specify a connection to a printer that is listening on a TCP/IP or other network port. To send data to a networked printer, you need to develop a communications program that can be called by the text and conversion filters. Here is one such example: the script netprint takes all data on standard input and sends it to a network-attached printer. We specify the hostname of the printer as the first argument and the port number to which to connect as the second argument to netprint. Note that this supports one-way communication only (FreeBSD to printer); many network printers support two-way communication, and you might want to take advantage of that (to get printer status, perform accounting, etc.). #!/usr/bin/perl # # netprint - Text filter for printer attached to network # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/netprint # $#ARGV eq 1 || die "Usage: $0 <printer-hostname> <port-number>"; $printer_host = $ARGV[0]; $printer_port = $ARGV[1]; require 'sys/socket.ph'; ($ignore, $ignore, $protocol) = getprotobyname('tcp'); ($ignore, $ignore, $ignore, $ignore, $address) = gethostbyname($printer_host); $sockaddr = pack('S n a4 x8', &AF_INET, $printer_port, $address); socket(PRINTER, &PF_INET, &SOCK_STREAM, $protocol) || die "Can't create TCP/IP stream socket: $!"; connect(PRINTER, $sockaddr) || die "Can't contact $printer_host: $!"; while (<STDIN>) { print PRINTER; } exit 0; We can then use this script in various filters. Suppose we had a Diablo 750-N line printer connected to the network. The printer accepts data to print on port number 5100. The host name of the printer is scrivener. Here is the text filter for the printer: #!/bin/sh # # diablo-if-net - Text filter for Diablo printer `scrivener' listening # on port 5100. Installed in /usr/local/libexec/diablo-if-net # exec /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf "$@" | /usr/local/libexec/netprint scrivener 5100 Restricting Printer Usage This section gives information on restricting printer usage. The LPD system lets you control who can access a printer, both locally or remotely, whether they can print multiple copies, how large their jobs can be, and how large the printer queues can get. Restricting Multiple Copies The LPD system makes it easy for users to print multiple copies of a file. Users can print jobs with lpr -#5 (for example) and get five copies of each file in the job. Whether this is a good thing is up to you. If you feel multiple copies cause unnecessary wear and tear on your printers, you can disable the option to lpr by adding the sc capability to the /etc/printcap file. When users submit jobs with the option, they will see: lpr: multiple copies are not allowed Note that if you have set up access to a printer remotely (see section ), you need the sc capability on the remote /etc/printcap files as well, or else users will still be able to submit multiple-copy jobs by using another host. Here is an example. This is the /etc/printcap file for the host rose. The printer rattan is quite hearty, so we will allow multiple copies, but the laser printer bamboo's a bit more delicate, so we will disable multiple copies by adding the sc capability: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - restrict multiple copies on bamboo # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: Now, we also need to add the sc capability on the host orchid's /etc/printcap (and while we are at it, let us disable multiple copies for the printer teak): # # /etc/printcap for host orchid - no multiple copies for local # printer teak or remote printer bamboo teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:sc:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/ifhp:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/vfhp:\ :of=/usr/local/libexec/ofhp: rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=rattan:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=bamboo:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc: By using the sc capability, we prevent the use of lpr -#, but that still does not prevent users from running lpr multiple times, or from submitting the same file multiple times in one job like this: &prompt.user; lpr forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign There are many ways to prevent this abuse (including ignoring it) which you are free to explore. Restricting Access To Printers You can control who can print to what printers by using the UNIX group mechanism and the rg capability in /etc/printcap. Just place the users you want to have access to a printer in a certain group, and then name that group in the rg capability. Users outside the group (including root) will be greeted with lpr: Not a member of the restricted group if they try to print to the controlled printer. As with the sc (suppress multiple copies) capability, you need to specify rg on remote hosts that also have access to your printers, if you feel it is appropriate (see section ). For example, we will let anyone access the printer rattan, but only those in group artists can use bamboo. Here is the familiar /etc/printcap for host rose: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - restricted group for bamboo # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: Let us leave the other example /etc/printcap file (for the host orchid) alone. Of course, anyone on orchid can print to bamboo. It might be the case that we only allow certain logins on orchid anyway, and want them to have access to the printer. Or not. There can be only one restricted group per printer. Controlling Sizes of Jobs Submitted If you have many users accessing the printers, you probably need to put an upper limit on the sizes of the files users can submit to print. After all, there is only so much free space on the filesystem that houses the spooling directories, and you also need to make sure there is room for the jobs of other users. LPD enables you to limit the maximum byte size a file in a job can be with the mx capability. The units are in BUFSIZ blocks, which are 1024 bytes. If you put a zero for this capability, there will be no limit on file size. The limit applies to files in a job, and not the total job size. LPD will not refuse a file that is larger than the limit you place on a printer. Instead, it will queue as much of the file up to the limit, which will then get printed. The rest will be discarded. Whether this is correct behavior is up for debate. Let us add limits to our example printers rattan and bamboo. Since those artists' PostScript files tend to be large, we will limit them to five megabytes. We will put no limit on the plain text line printer: # # /etc/printcap for host rose # # # No limit on job size: # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: # # Limit of five megabytes: # bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:mx#5000:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: Again, the limits apply to the local users only. If you have set up access to your printers remotely, remote users will not get those limits. You will need to specify the mx capability in the remote /etc/printcap files as well. See section for more information on remote printing. There is another specialized way to limit job sizes from remote printers; see section . Restricting Jobs from Remote Printers The LPD spooling system provides several ways to restrict print jobs submitted from remote hosts: Host restrictions You can control from which remote hosts a local LPD accepts requests with the files /etc/hosts.equiv and /etc/hosts.lpd. LPD checks to see if an incoming request is from a host listed in either one of these files. If not, LPD refuses the request. The format of these files is simple: one host name per line. Note that the file /etc/hosts.equiv is also used by the ruserok3 protocol, and affects programs like rsh and rcp, so be careful. For example, here is the /etc/hosts.lpd file on the host rose: orchid violet madrigal.fishbaum.de This means rose will accept requests from the hosts orchid, violet, and madrigal.fishbaum.de. If any other host tries to access rose's LPD, LPD will refuse them. Size restrictions You can control how much free space there needs to remain on the filesystem where a spooling directory resides. Make a file called minfree in the spooling directory for the local printer. Insert in that file a number representing how many disk blocks (512 bytes) of free space there has to be for a remote job to be accepted. This lets you insure that remote users will not fill your filesystem. You can also use it to give a certain priority to local users: they will be able to queue jobs long after the free disk space has fallen below the amount specified in the minfree file. For example, let us add a minfree file for the printer bamboo. We examine /etc/printcap to find the spooling directory for this printer; here is bamboo's entry: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:mx#5000:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:mx#5000:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: The spooling directory is the given in the sd capability. We will make three megabytes (which is 6144 disk blocks) the amount of free disk space that must exist on the filesystem for LPD to accept remote jobs: &prompt.root; echo 6144 > /var/spool/lpd/bamboo/minfree User restrictions You can control which remote users can print to local printers by specifying the rs capability in /etc/printcap. When rs appears in the entry for a locally-attached printer, LPD will accept jobs from remote hosts if the user submitting the job also has an account of the same login name on the local host. Otherwise, LPD refuses the job. This capability is particularly useful in an environment where there are (for example) different departments sharing a network, and some users transcend departmental boundaries. By giving them accounts on your systems, they can use your printers from their own departmental systems. If you would rather allow them to use only your printers and not your compute resources, you can give them token accounts, with no home directory and a useless shell like /usr/bin/false. Accounting for Printer Usage So, you need to charge for printouts. And why not? Paper and ink cost money. And then there are maintenance costs—printers are loaded with moving parts and tend to break down. You have examined your printers, usage patterns, and maintenance fees and have come up with a per-page (or per-foot, per-meter, or per-whatever) cost. Now, how do you actually start accounting for printouts? Well, the bad news is the LPD spooling system does not provide much help in this department. Accounting is highly dependent on the kind of printer in use, the formats being printed, and your requirements in charging for printer usage. To implement accounting, you have to modify a printer's text filter (to charge for plain text jobs) and the conversion filters (to charge for other file formats), to count pages or query the printer for pages printed. You cannot get away with using the simple output filter, since it cannot do accounting. See section . Generally, there are two ways to do accounting: Periodic accounting is the more common way, possibly because it is easier. Whenever someone prints a job, the filter logs the user, host, and number of pages to an accounting file. Every month, semester, year, or whatever time period you prefer, you collect the accounting files for the various printers, tally up the pages printed by users, and charge for usage. Then you truncate all the logging files, starting with a clean slate for the next period. Timely accounting is less common, probably because it is more difficult. This method has the filters charge users for printouts as soon as they use the printers. Like disk quotas, the accounting is immediate. You can prevent users from printing when their account goes in the red, and might provide a way for users to check and adjust their print quotas. But this method requires some database code to track users and their quotas. The LPD spooling system supports both methods easily: since you have to provide the filters (well, most of the time), you also have to provide the accounting code. But there is a bright side: you have enormous flexibility in your accounting methods. For example, you choose whether to use periodic or timely accounting. You choose what information to log: user names, host names, job types, pages printed, square footage of paper used, how long the job took to print, and so forth. And you do so by modifying the filters to save this information. Quick and Dirty Printer Accounting FreeBSD comes with two programs that can get you set up with simple periodic accounting right away. They are the text filter lpf, described in section , and pac, a program to gather and total entries from printer accounting files. As mentioned in the section on filters (), LPD starts the text and the conversion filters with the name of the accounting file to use on the filter command line. The filters can use this argument to know where to write an accounting file entry. The name of this file comes from the af capability in /etc/printcap, and if not specified as an absolute path, is relative to the spooling directory. LPD starts lpf with page width and length arguments (from the pw and pl capabilities). lpf uses these arguments to determine how much paper will be used. After sending the file to the printer, it then writes an accounting entry in the accounting file. The entries look like this: 2.00 rose:andy 3.00 rose:kelly 3.00 orchid:mary 5.00 orchid:mary 2.00 orchid:zhang You should use a separate accounting file for each printer, as lpf has no file locking logic built into it, and two lpfs might corrupt each other's entries if they were to write to the same file at the same time. A easy way to insure a separate accounting file for each printer is to use af=acct in /etc/printcap. Then, each accounting file will be in the spooling directory for a printer, in a file named acct. When you are ready to charge users for printouts, run the pac program. Just change to the spooling directory for the printer you want to collect on and type pac. You will get a dollar-centric summary like the following: Login pages/feet runs price orchid:kelly 5.00 1 $ 0.10 orchid:mary 31.00 3 $ 0.62 orchid:zhang 9.00 1 $ 0.18 rose:andy 2.00 1 $ 0.04 rose:kelly 177.00 104 $ 3.54 rose:mary 87.00 32 $ 1.74 rose:root 26.00 12 $ 0.52 total 337.00 154 $ 6.74 These are the arguments pac expects: Which printer to summarize. This option works only if there is an absolute path in the af capability in /etc/printcap. Sort the output by cost instead of alphabetically by user name. Ignore host name in the accounting files. With this option, user smith on host alpha is the same user smith on host gamma. Without, they are different users. Compute charges with price dollars per page or per foot instead of the price from the pc capability in /etc/printcap, or two cents (the default). You can specify price as a floating point number. Reverse the sort order. Make an accounting summary file and truncate the accounting file. name … Print accounting information for the given user names only. In the default summary that pac produces, you see the number of pages printed by each user from various hosts. If, at your site, host does not matter (because users can use any host), run pac -m, to produce the following summary: Login pages/feet runs price andy 2.00 1 $ 0.04 kelly 182.00 105 $ 3.64 mary 118.00 35 $ 2.36 root 26.00 12 $ 0.52 zhang 9.00 1 $ 0.18 total 337.00 154 $ 6.74 To compute the dollar amount due, pac uses the pc capability in the /etc/printcap file (default of 200, or 2 cents per page). Specify, in hundredths of cents, the price per page or per foot you want to charge for printouts in this capability. You can override this value when you run pac with the option. The units for the option are in dollars, though, not hundredths of cents. For example, &prompt.root; pac -p1.50 makes each page cost one dollar and fifty cents. You can really rake in the profits by using this option. Finally, running pac -s will save the summary information in a summary accounting file, which is named the same as the printer's accounting file, but with _sum appended to the name. It then truncates the accounting file. When you run pac again, it rereads the summary file to get starting totals, then adds information from the regular accounting file. How Can You Count Pages Printed? In order to perform even remotely accurate accounting, you need to be able to determine how much paper a job uses. This is the essential problem of printer accounting. For plain text jobs, the problem's not that hard to solve: you count how many lines are in a job and compare it to how many lines per page your printer supports. Do not forget to take into account backspaces in the file which overprint lines, or long logical lines that wrap onto one or more additional physical lines. The text filter lpf (introduced in ) takes into account these things when it does accounting. If you are writing a text filter which needs to do accounting, you might want to examine lpf's source code. How do you handle other file formats, though? Well, for DVI-to-LaserJet or DVI-to-PostScript conversion, you can have your filter parse the diagnostic output of dvilj or dvips and look to see how many pages were converted. You might be able to do similar things with other file formats and conversion programs. But these methods suffer from the fact that the printer may not actually print all those pages. For example, it could jam, run out of toner, or explode—and the user would still get charged. So, what can you do? There is only one sure way to do accurate accounting. Get a printer that can tell you how much paper it uses, and attach it via a serial line or a network connection. Nearly all PostScript printers support this notion. Other makes and models do as well (networked Imagen laser printers, for example). Modify the filters for these printers to get the page usage after they print each job and have them log accounting information based on that value only. There is no line counting nor error-prone file examination required. Of course, you can always be generous and make all printouts free. Alternatives to the Standard Spooler If you have been reading straight through this manual, by now you have learned just about everything there is to know about the LPD spooling system that comes with FreeBSD. You can probably appreciate many of its shortcomings, which naturally leads to the question: What other spooling systems are out there (and work with FreeBSD)? Unfortunately, I have located only two alternatives—and they are almost identical to each other! They are: PLP, the Portable Line Printer Spooler System PLP was based on software developed by Patrick Powell and then maintained by an Internet-wide group of developers. The main site for the software is at ftp://ftp.iona.ie/pub/plp. There is also a web page. It is quite similar to the BSD LPD spooler, but boasts a host of features, including: Better network support, including built-in support for networked printers, NIS-maintained printcaps, and NFS-mounted spooling directories Sophisticated queue management, allowing multiple printers on a queue, transfer of jobs between queues, and queue redirection Remote printer control functions Prioritization of jobs Expansive security and access options LPRng LPRng, which purportedly means LPR: the Next Generation is a complete rewrite of PLP. Patrick Powell and Justin Mason (the principal maintainer of PLP) collaborated to make LPRng. The main site for LPRng is ftp://dickory.sdsu.edu/pub/LPRng. Acknowledgments I would like to thank the following people who have assisted in the development of this document: Daniel Eischen deischen@iworks.interworks.org For providing a plethora of HP filter programs for perusal. &a.jehamby; For the Ghostscript-to-HP filter. My wife, Mary Kelly urquhart@argyre.colorado.edu For allowing me to spend more time with FreeBSD than with her. Disk Quotas Contributed by &a.mpp;.26 February 1996 Quotas are an optional feature of the operating system that allow you to limit the amount of disk space and/or the number of files a user, or members of a group, may allocate on a per-file system basis. This is used most often on timesharing systems where it is desirable to limit the amount of resources any one user or group of users may allocate. This will prevent one user from consuming all of the available disk space. Configuring Your System to Enable Disk Quotas Before attempting to use disk quotas it is necessary to make sure that quotas are configured in your kernel. This is done by adding the following line to your kernel configuration file: options QUOTA The stock GENERIC kernel does not have this enabled by default, so you will have to configure, build and install a custom kernel in order to use disk quotas. Please refer to the section for more information on kernel configuration. Next you will need to enable disk quotas in /etc/sysconfig. This is done by changing the line: quotas=NO to: quotas=YES If you are running FreeBSD 2.2.2 or later, the configuration file will be /etc/rc.conf instead and the variable name changed to: check_quotas=YES Finally you will need to edit /etc/fstab to enable disk quotas on a per-file system basis. This is where you can either enable user or group quotas or both for all of your file systems. To enable per-user quotas on a file system, add the userquota option to the options field in the /etc/fstab entry for the file system you want to to enable quotas on. For example: /dev/sd1s2g /home ufs rw,userquota 1 2 Similarly, to enable group quotas, use the groupquota option instead of the userquota keyword. To enable both user and group quotas, change the entry as follows: /dev/sd1s2g /home ufs rw,userquota,groupquota 1 2 By default the quota files are stored in the root directory of the file system with the names quota.user and quota.group for user and group quotas respectively. See man fstab for more information. Even though that man page says that you can specify an alternate location for the quota files, this is not recommended since all of the various quota utilities do not seem to handle this properly. At this point you should reboot your system with your new kernel. /etc/rc will automatically run the appropriate commands to create the initial quota files for all of the quotas you enabled in /etc/fstab, so there is no need to manually create any zero length quota files. In the normal course of operations you should not be required to run the quotacheck, quotaon, or quotaoff commands manually. However, you may want to read their man pages just to be familiar with their operation. Setting Quota Limits Once you have configured your system to enable quotas, verify that they really are enabled. An easy way to do this is to run &prompt.root; quota -v You should see a one line summary of disk usage and current quota limits for each file system that quotas are enabled on. You are now ready to start assigning quota limits with the edquota command. You have several options on how to enforce limits on the amount of disk space a user or group may allocate, and how many files they may create. You may limit allocations based on disk space (block quotas) or number of files (inode quotas) or a combination of both. Each of these limits are further broken down into two categories: hard and soft limits. A hard limit may not be exceeded. Once a user reaches their hard limit they may not make any further allocations on the file system in question. For example, if the user has a hard limit of 500 blocks on a file system and is currently using 490 blocks, the user can only allocate an additional 10 blocks. Attempting to allocate an additional 11 blocks will fail. Soft limits on the other hand can be exceeded for a limited amount of time. This period of time is known as the grace period, which is one week by default. If a user stays over his or her soft limit longer than their grace period, the soft limit will turn into a hard limit and no further allocations will be allowed. When the user drops back below the soft limit, the grace period will be reset. The following is an example of what you might see when you run then edquota command. When the edquota command is invoked, you are placed into the editor specified by the EDITOR environment variable, or in the vi editor if the EDITOR variable is not set, to allow you to edit the quota limits. &prompt.root; edquota -u test Quotas for user test: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75) inodes in use: 7, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60) /usr/var: blocks in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75) inodes in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60) You will normally see two lines for each file system that has quotas enabled. One line for the block limits, and one line for inode limits. Simply change the value you want updated to modify the quota limit. For example, to raise this users block limit from a soft limit of 50 and a hard limit of 75 to a soft limit of 500 and a hard limit of 600, change: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75) to: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 500, hard = 600) The new quota limits will be in place when you exit the editor. Sometimes it is desirable to set quota limits on a range of uids. This can be done by use of the option on the edquota command. First, assign the desired quota limit to a user, and then run edquota -p protouser startuid-enduid. For example, if user test has the desired quota limits, the following command can be used to duplicate those quota limits for uids 10,000 through 19,999: &prompt.root; edquota -p test 10000-19999 The ability to specify uid ranges was added to the system after 2.1 was released. If you need this feature on a 2.1 system, you will need to obtain a newer copy of edquota. See man edquota for more detailed information. Checking Quota Limits and Disk Usage You can use either the quota or the repquota commands to check quota limits and disk usage. The quota command can be used to check individual user and group quotas and disk usage. Only the super-user may examine quotas and usage for other users, or for groups that they are not a member of. The repquota command can be used to get a summary of all quotas and disk usage for file systems with quotas enabled. The following is some sample output from the quota -v command for a user that has quota limits on two file systems. Disk quotas for user test (uid 1002): Filesystem blocks quota limit grace files quota limit grace /usr 65* 50 75 5days 7 50 60 /usr/var 0 50 75 0 50 60 On the /usr file system in the above example this user is currently 15 blocks over their soft limit of 50 blocks and has 5 days of their grace period left. Note the asterisk * which indicates that the user is currently over their quota limit. Normally file systems that the user is not using any disk space on will not show up in the output from the quota command, even if they have a quota limit assigned for that file system. The option will display those file systems, such as the /usr/var file system in the above example. * Quotas over NFS This section is still under development. The X Window System Pending the completion of this section, please refer to documentation supplied by the The XFree86 Project, Inc. PC Hardware compatibility Issues of hardware compatibility are among the most troublesome in the computer industry today and FreeBSD is by no means immune to trouble. In this respect, FreeBSD's advantage of being able to run on inexpensive commodity PC hardware is also its liability when it comes to support for the amazing variety of components on the market. While it would be impossible to provide a exhaustive listing of hardware that FreeBSD supports, this section serves as a catalog of the device drivers included with FreeBSD and the hardware each drivers supports. Where possible and appropriate, notes about specific products are included. You may also want to refer to section in this handbook for a list of supported devices. As FreeBSD is a volunteer project without a funded testing department, we depend on you, the user, for much of the information contained in this catalog. If you have direct experience of hardware that does or does not work with FreeBSD, please let us know by sending e-mail to the &a.doc;. Questions about supported hardware should be directed to the &a.questions; (see for more information). When submitting information or asking a question, please remember to specify exactly what version of FreeBSD you are using and include as many details of your hardware as possible. Resources on the Internet The following links have proven useful in selecting hardware. Though some of what you see won't necessarily be specific (or even applicable) to FreeBSD, most of the hardware information out there is OS independent. Please check with the FreeBSD hardware guide to make sure that your chosen configuration is supported before making any purchases. The Pentium Systems Hardware Performance Guide Sample Configurations The following list of sample hardware configurations by no means constitutes an endorsement of a given hardware vendor or product by The FreeBSD Project. This information is provided only as a public service and merely catalogs some of the experiences that various individuals have had with different hardware combinations. Your mileage may vary. Slippery when wet. Beware of dog. Jordan's Picks I have had fairly good luck building workstation and server configurations with the following components. I can't guarantee that you will too, nor that any of the companies here will remain best buys forever. I will try, when I can, to keep this list up-to-date but cannot obviously guarantee that it will be at any given time. Motherboards For Pentium Pro (P6) systems, I'm quite fond of the Tyan S1668 dual-processor motherboard. It makes a dandy little single or dual processor system (which is supported in FreeBSD 3.0) and the price of the Pentium Pro 180/256K chip has fallen to truly affordable levels. The Pentium Pro remains my favorite processor solution server systems (Megahertz ratings aren't everything). For the Pentium II, I'm rather partial to the ASUS P2l97-S motherboard with the on-board Adaptec SCSI WIDE controller. For Pentium machines, the ASUS P55T2P4 motherboard appears to be a good choice for mid-to-high range Pentium server and workstation systems. You might also wish to investigate ASUS's 486SP3G offering if it's a 486-class motherboard you're looking for. These have become increasingly hard to get as ASUS apparently no longer manufactures them). Those wishing to build more fault-tolerant systems should also be sure to use Parity memory or, for truly 24/7 applications, ECC memory. ECC memory does involve a slight performance trade-off (which may or may not be noticeable depending on your application) but buys you significantly increased fault-tolerance to memory errors. Disk Controllers This one is a bit trickier, and while I used to recommend the Buslogic controllers unilaterally for everything from ISA to PCI, now I tend to lean towards the Adaptec 1542CF for ISA, Buslogic Bt747c for EISA and Adaptec 2940UW for PCI. The NCR/Symbios cards for PCI have also worked well for me, though you need to make sure that your motherboard supports the BIOS-less model if you're using one of those (if your card has nothing which looks even vaguely like a ROM chip on it, you've probably got one which expects its BIOS to be on your motherboard). If you should find that you need more than one SCSI controller in a PCI machine, you may wish to consider conserving your scarce PCI bus resources by buying the Adaptec 3940 card, which puts two SCSI controllers (and internal busses) in a single slot. Disk drives In this particular game of Russian roulette, I'll make few specific recommendations except to say SCSI over IDE whenever you can afford it. Even in small desktop configurations, SCSI often makes more sense since it allows you to easily migrate drives from server to desktop as falling drive prices make it economical to do so. If you have more than one machine to administer then think of it not simply as storage, think of it as a food chain! I do not currently see SCSI WIDE drives as a necessary expense unless you're putting together an NFS or NEWS server that will be doing a lot of multiuser disk I/O. CDROM drives My SCSI preferences extend to SCSI CDROM drives as well, and while the Toshiba XM-3501B (also released in a caddy-less model called the XM-5401B) drive has always performed well for me, I'm now a great fan of the Plextor PX-12CS drive. It's a 12 speed drive with excellent performance and reliability. Generally speaking, most SCSI CDROM drives I've seen have been of pretty solid construction and you probably won't go wrong with an HP or NEC SCSI CDROM drive either. SCSI CDROM prices also appear to have dropped considerably in the last few months and are now quite competitive with IDE CDROMs while remaining a technically superior solution. I now see no reason whatsoever to settle for an IDE CDROM drive if given a choice between the two. CD Recordable (WORM) drives At the time of this writing, FreeBSD supports 3 types of CDR drives (though I believe they all ultimately come from Phillips anyway): The Phillips CDD 522 (Acts like a Plasmon), the PLASMON RF4100 and the HP 6020i. I myself use the HP 6020i for burning CDROMs (with 2.2-current — it does not work with 2.1.5 or earlier releases of the SCSI code) and it works very well. See /usr/share/examples/worm on your 2.2 system for example scripts used to created ISO9660 filesystem images (with RockRidge extensions) and burn them onto an HP6020i CDR. Tape drives I've had pretty good luck with both 8mm drives from Exabyte and 4mm (DAT) drives from HP. For backup purposes, I'd have to give the higher recommendation to the Exabyte due to the more robust nature (and higher storage capacity) of 8mm tape. Video Cards If you can also afford to buy a commercial X server for US$99 from Xi Graphics, Inc. (formerly X Inside, Inc) then I can heartily recommend the Matrox Millenium card. Note that support for this card is also excellent with the XFree86 server, which is now at version 3.3.2. You also certainly can't go wrong with one of Number 9's cards — their S3 Vision 868 and 968 based cards (the 9FX series) also being quite fast and very well supported by XFree86's S3 server. Monitors I have had very good luck with the Sony Multiscan 17seII monitors, as have I with the Viewsonic offering in the same (Trinitron) tube. For larger than 17", all I can recommend at the time of this writing is to not spend any less than U.S. $2,500 for a 21" monitor or $1,700 for a 20" monitor if that's what you really need. There are good monitors available in the >=20" range and there are also cheap monitors in the >=20" range. Unfortunately, very few are both cheap and good! Networking I can recommend the SMC Ultra 16 controller for any ISA application and the SMC EtherPower or Compex ENET32 cards for any serious PCI based networking. Both of the PCI cards are based around DEC's DC21041 Ethernet controller chip and other cards using it, such as the Zynx ZX342 or DEC DE435, will generally work as well. For 100Mbit networking, either the SMC SMC9332DST 10/100MB or Intel EtherExpress Pro/100B cards will do a fine job, the Intel EtherExpress generally getting my vote. If what you're looking for is, on the other hand, the cheapest possible solution which will still work reasonably well, then almost any NE2000 clone is a good choice. Serial If you're looking for high-speed serial networking solutions, then Digi International makes the SYNC/570 series, with drivers now in FreeBSD-current. Emerging Technologies also manufactures a board with T1/E1 capabilities, using software they provide. I have no direct experience using either product, however. Multiport card options are somewhat more numerous, though it has to be said that FreeBSD's support for Cyclades's products is probably the tightest, primarily as a result of that company's commitment to making sure that we are adequately supplied with evaluation boards and technical specs. I've heard that the Cyclom-16Ye offers the best price/performance, though I've not checked the prices lately. Other multiport cards I've heard good things about are the BOCA and AST cards, and Stallion Technologies apparently offers an unofficial driver for their cards at this location. Audio I currently use a Creative Labs AWE32 though just about anything from Creative Labs will generally work these days. This is not to say that other types of sound cards don't also work, simply that I have little experience with them (I was a former GUS fan, but Gravis's soundcard situation has been dire for some time). Video For video capture, there are two good choices — any card based on the Brooktree BT848 chip, such as the Hauppage or WinTV boards, will work very nicely with FreeBSD. Another board which works for me is the Matrox Meteor card. FreeBSD also supports the older video spigot card from Creative Labs, but those are getting somewhat difficult to find. Note that the Meteor frame grabber card will not work with motherboards based on the 440FX chipset! See the section for details. In such cases, it's better to go with a BT848 based board. Core/Processing Motherboards, busses, and chipsets * ISA * EISA * VLB PCI Contributed by &a.rgrimes;.25 April 1995. Continuing updates by &a.jkh;.Last update on 26 August 1996. Of the Intel PCI chip sets, the following list describes various types of known-brokenness and the degree of breakage, listed from worst to best. Mercury: Cache coherency problems, especially if there are ISA bus masters behind the ISA to PCI bridge chip. Hardware flaw, only known work around is to turn the cache off. Saturn-I (ie, 82424ZX at rev 0, 1 or 2): Write back cache coherency problems. Hardware flaw, only known work around is to set the external cache to write-through mode. Upgrade to Saturn-II. Saturn-II (ie, 82424ZX at rev 3 or 4): Works fine, but many MB manufactures leave out the external dirty bit SRAM needed for write back operation. Work arounds are either run it in write through mode, or get the dirty bit SRAM installed. (I have these for the ASUS PCI/I-486SP3G rev 1.6 and later boards). Neptune: Can not run more than 2 bus master devices. Admitted Intel design flaw. Workarounds include do not run more than 2 bus masters, special hardware design to replace the PCI bus arbiter (appears on Intel Altair board and several other Intel server group MB's). And of course Intel's official answer, move to the Triton chip set, we fixed it there. Triton (ie, 430FX): No known cache coherency or bus master problems, chip set does not implement parity checking. Workaround for parity issue. Use Triton-II based motherboards if you have the choice. Triton-II (ie, 430HX): All reports on motherboards using this chipset have been favorable so far. No known problems. Orion: Early versions of this chipset suffered from a PCI write-posting bug which can cause noticeable performance degradation in applications where large amounts of PCI bus traffic is involved. B0 stepping or later revisions of the chipset fixed this problem. 440FX: This Pentium Pro support chipset seems to work well, and does not suffer from any of the early Orion chipset problems. It also supports a wider variety of memory, including ECC and parity. The only known problem with it is that the Matrox Meteor frame grabber card doesn't like it. CPUs/FPUs Contributed by &a.asami;.26 December 1997. P6 class (Pentium Pro/Pentium II) Both the Pentium Pro and Pentium II work fine with FreeBSD. In fact, our main ftp site ftp.freebsd.org (also known as "ftp.cdrom.com", world's largest ftp site) runs FreeBSD on a Pentium Pro. Configurations details are available for interested parties. Pentium class The Intel Pentium (P54C), Pentium MMX (P55C), AMD K6 and Cyrix/IBM 6x86MX processors are all reported to work with FreeBSD. I will not go into details of which processor is faster than what, there are zillions of web sites on the Internet that tells you one way or another. :) Various CPUs have different voltage/cooling requirements. Make sure your motherboard can supply the exact voltage needed by the CPU. For instance, many recent MMX chips require split voltage (e.g., 2.9V core, 3.3V I/O). Also, some AMD and Cyrix/IBM chips run hotter than Intel chips. In that case, make sure you have good heatsink/fans (you can get the list of certified parts from their web pages). Clock speeds Contributed by &a.rgrimes;.1 October 1996. Updated by &a.asami;.27 December 1997. Pentium class machines use different clock speeds for the various parts of the system. These being the speed of the CPU, external memory bus, and the PCI bus. It is not always true that a faster processor will make a system faster than a slower one, due to the various clock speeds used. Below is a table showing the differences: Rated CPU MHz External Clock and Memory Bus MHz 66MHz may actually be 66.667MHz, but don't assume so. External to Internal Clock Multiplier PCI Bus Clock MHz 60 60 1.0 30 66 66 1.0 33 75 50 1.5 25 90 60 1.5 30 100 50 The Pentium 100 can be run at either 50MHz external clock with a multiplier of 2 or at 66MHz and a multipler of 1.5 2 25 100 66 1.5 33 120 60 2 30 133 66 2 33 150 60 2.5 30 (Intel, AMD) 150 75 2 37.5 (Cyrix/IBM 6x86MX) 166 66 2.5 33 180 60 3 30 200 66 3 33 233 66 3.5 33 As can be seen the best parts to be using are the 100, 133, 166, 200 and 233, with the exception that at a multiplier of 3 or more the CPU starves for memory. The AMD K6 Bug In 1997, there have been reports of the AMD K6 seg faulting during heavy compilation. That problem has been fixed in 3Q '97. According to reports, K6 chips with date mark 9733 or larger (i.e., manufactured in the 33rd week of '97 or later) do not have this bug. * 486 class * 386 class 286 class Sorry, FreeBSD does not run on 80286 machines. It is nearly impossible to run today's large full-featured UNIXes on such hardware. * Memory The minimum amount of memory you must have to install FreeBSD is 5 MB. Once your system is up and running you can that will use less memory. If you use the boot4.flp you can get away with having only 4 MB. * BIOS Input/Output Devices * Video cards * Sound cards Serial ports and multiport cards The UART: What it is and how it works Copyright © 1996 &a.uhclem;, All Rights Reserved. 13 January 1996. The Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) controller is the key component of the serial communications subsystem of a computer. The UART takes bytes of data and transmits the individual bits in a sequential fashion. At the destination, a second UART re-assembles the bits into complete bytes. Serial transmission is commonly used with modems and for non-networked communication between computers, terminals and other devices. There are two primary forms of serial transmission: Synchronous and Asynchronous. Depending on the modes that are supported by the hardware, the name of the communication sub-system will usually include a A if it supports Asynchronous communications, and a S if it supports Synchronous communications. Both forms are described below. Some common acronyms are:
UART Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter
USART Universal Synchronous-Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter
Synchronous Serial Transmission Synchronous serial transmission requires that the sender and receiver share a clock with one another, or that the sender provide a strobe or other timing signal so that the receiver knows when to read the next bit of the data. In most forms of serial Synchronous communication, if there is no data available at a given instant to transmit, a fill character must be sent instead so that data is always being transmitted. Synchronous communication is usually more efficient because only data bits are transmitted between sender and receiver, and synchronous communication can be more more costly if extra wiring and circuits are required to share a clock signal between the sender and receiver. A form of Synchronous transmission is used with printers and fixed disk devices in that the data is sent on one set of wires while a clock or strobe is sent on a different wire. Printers and fixed disk devices are not normally serial devices because most fixed disk interface standards send an entire word of data for each clock or strobe signal by using a separate wire for each bit of the word. In the PC industry, these are known as Parallel devices. The standard serial communications hardware in the PC does not support Synchronous operations. This mode is described here for comparison purposes only. Asynchronous Serial Transmission Asynchronous transmission allows data to be transmitted without the sender having to send a clock signal to the receiver. Instead, the sender and receiver must agree on timing parameters in advance and special bits are added to each word which are used to synchronize the sending and receiving units. When a word is given to the UART for Asynchronous transmissions, a bit called the "Start Bit" is added to the beginning of each word that is to be transmitted. The Start Bit is used to alert the receiver that a word of data is about to be sent, and to force the clock in the receiver into synchronization with the clock in the transmitter. These two clocks must be accurate enough to not have the frequency drift by more than 10% during the transmission of the remaining bits in the word. (This requirement was set in the days of mechanical teleprinters and is easily met by modern electronic equipment.) After the Start Bit, the individual bits of the word of data are sent, with the Least Significant Bit (LSB) being sent first. Each bit in the transmission is transmitted for exactly the same amount of time as all of the other bits, and the receiver looks at the wire at approximately halfway through the period assigned to each bit to determine if the bit is a 1 or a 0. For example, if it takes two seconds to send each bit, the receiver will examine the signal to determine if it is a 1 or a 0 after one second has passed, then it will wait two seconds and then examine the value of the next bit, and so on. The sender does not know when the receiver has looked at the value of the bit. The sender only knows when the clock says to begin transmitting the next bit of the word. When the entire data word has been sent, the transmitter may add a Parity Bit that the transmitter generates. The Parity Bit may be used by the receiver to perform simple error checking. Then at least one Stop Bit is sent by the transmitter. When the receiver has received all of the bits in the data word, it may check for the Parity Bits (both sender and receiver must agree on whether a Parity Bit is to be used), and then the receiver looks for a Stop Bit. If the Stop Bit does not appear when it is supposed to, the UART considers the entire word to be garbled and will report a Framing Error to the host processor when the data word is read. The usual cause of a Framing Error is that the sender and receiver clocks were not running at the same speed, or that the signal was interrupted. Regardless of whether the data was received correctly or not, the UART automatically discards the Start, Parity and Stop bits. If the sender and receiver are configured identically, these bits are not passed to the host. If another word is ready for transmission, the Start Bit for the new word can be sent as soon as the Stop Bit for the previous word has been sent. Because asynchronous data is self synchronizing, if there is no data to transmit, the transmission line can be idle. Other UART Functions In addition to the basic job of converting data from parallel to serial for transmission and from serial to parallel on reception, a UART will usually provide additional circuits for signals that can be used to indicate the state of the transmission media, and to regulate the flow of data in the event that the remote device is not prepared to accept more data. For example, when the device connected to the UART is a modem, the modem may report the presence of a carrier on the phone line while the computer may be able to instruct the modem to reset itself or to not take calls by asserting or deasserting one more more of these extra signals. The function of each of these additional signals is defined in the EIA RS232-C standard. The RS232-C and V.24 Standards In most computer systems, the UART is connected to circuitry that generates signals that comply with the EIA RS232-C specification. There is also a CCITT standard named V.24 that mirrors the specifications included in RS232-C. RS232-C Bit Assignments (Marks and Spaces) In RS232-C, a value of 1 is called a Mark and a value of 0 is called a Space. When a communication line is idle, the line is said to be Marking, or transmitting continuous 1 values. The Start bit always has a value of 0 (a Space). The Stop Bit always has a value of 1 (a Mark). This means that there will always be a Mark (1) to Space (0) transition on the line at the start of every word, even when multiple word are transmitted back to back. This guarantees that sender and receiver can resynchronize their clocks regardless of the content of the data bits that are being transmitted. The idle time between Stop and Start bits does not have to be an exact multiple (including zero) of the bit rate of the communication link, but most UARTs are designed this way for simplicity. In RS232-C, the "Marking" signal (a 1) is represented by a voltage between -2 VDC and -12 VDC, and a "Spacing" signal (a 0) is represented by a voltage between 0 and +12 VDC. The transmitter is supposed to send +12 VDC or -12 VDC, and the receiver is supposed to allow for some voltage loss in long cables. Some transmitters in low power devices (like portable computers) sometimes use only +5 VDC and -5 VDC, but these values are still acceptable to a RS232-C receiver, provided that the cable lengths are short. RS232-C Break Signal RS232-C also specifies a signal called a Break, which is caused by sending continuous Spacing values (no Start or Stop bits). When there is no electricity present on the data circuit, the line is considered to be sending Break. The Break signal must be of a duration longer than the time it takes to send a complete byte plus Start, Stop and Parity bits. Most UARTs can distinguish between a Framing Error and a Break, but if the UART cannot do this, the Framing Error detection can be used to identify Breaks. In the days of teleprinters, when numerous printers around the country were wired in series (such as news services), any unit could cause a Break by temporarily opening the entire circuit so that no current flowed. This was used to allow a location with urgent news to interrupt some other location that was currently sending information. In modern systems there are two types of Break signals. If the Break is longer than 1.6 seconds, it is considered a "Modem Break", and some modems can be programmed to terminate the conversation and go on-hook or enter the modems' command mode when the modem detects this signal. If the Break is smaller than 1.6 seconds, it signifies a Data Break and it is up to the remote computer to respond to this signal. Sometimes this form of Break is used as an Attention or Interrupt signal and sometimes is accepted as a substitute for the ASCII CONTROL-C character. Marks and Spaces are also equivalent to Holes and No Holes in paper tape systems. Breaks cannot be generated from paper tape or from any other byte value, since bytes are always sent with Start and Stop bit. The UART is usually capable of generating the continuous Spacing signal in response to a special command from the host processor. RS232-C DTE and DCE Devices The RS232-C specification defines two types of equipment: the Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and the Data Carrier Equipment (DCE). Usually, the DTE device is the terminal (or computer), and the DCE is a modem. Across the phone line at the other end of a conversation, the receiving modem is also a DCE device and the computer that is connected to that modem is a DTE device. The DCE device receives signals on the pins that the DTE device transmits on, and vice versa. When two devices that are both DTE or both DCE must be connected together without a modem or a similar media translater between them, a NULL modem must be used. The NULL modem electrically re-arranges the cabling so that the transmitter output is connected to the receiver input on the other device, and vice versa. Similar translations are performed on all of the control signals so that each device will see what it thinks are DCE (or DTE) signals from the other device. The number of signals generated by the DTE and DCE devices are not symmetrical. The DTE device generates fewer signals for the DCE device than the DTE device receives from the DCE. RS232-C Pin Assignments The EIA RS232-C specification (and the ITU equivalent, V.24) calls for a twenty-five pin connector (usually a DB25) and defines the purpose of most of the pins in that connector. In the IBM Personal Computer and similar systems, a subset of RS232-C signals are provided via nine pin connectors (DB9). The signals that are not included on the PC connector deal mainly with synchronous operation, and this transmission mode is not supported by the UART that IBM selected for use in the IBM PC. Depending on the computer manufacturer, a DB25, a DB9, or both types of connector may be used for RS232-C communications. (The IBM PC also uses a DB25 connector for the parallel printer interface which causes some confusion.) Below is a table of the RS232-C signal assignments in the DB25 and DB9 connectors. DB25 RS232-C Pin DB9 IBM PC Pin EIA Circuit Symbol CCITT Circuit Symbol Common Name Signal Source Description 1 - AA 101 PG/FG - Frame/Protective Ground 2 3 BA 103 TD DTE Transmit Data 3 2 BB 104 RD DCE Receive Data 4 7 CA 105 RTS DTE Request to Send 5 8 CB 106 CTS DCE Clear to Send 6 6 CC 107 DSR DCE Data Set Ready 7 5 AV 102 SG/GND - Signal Ground 8 1 CF 109 DCD/CD DCE Data Carrier Detect 9 - - - - - Reserved for Test 10 - - - - - Reserved for Test 11 - - - - - Reserved for Test 12 - CI 122 SRLSD DCE Sec. Recv. Line Signal Detector 13 - SCB 121 SCTS DCE Secondary Clear to Send 14 - SBA 118 STD DTE Secondary Transmit Data 15 - DB 114 TSET DCE Trans. Sig. Element Timing 16 - SBB 119 SRD DCE Secondary Received Data 17 - DD 115 RSET DCE Receiver Signal Element Timing 18 - - 141 LOOP DTE Local Loopback 19 - SCA 120 SRS DTE Secondary Request to Send 20 4 CD 108.2 DTR DTE Data Terminal Ready 21 - - - RDL DTE Remote Digital Loopback 22 9 CE 125 RI DCE Ring Indicator 23 - CH 111 DSRS DTE Data Signal Rate Selector 24 - DA 113 TSET DTE Trans. Sig. Element Timing 25 - - 142 - DCE Test Mode Bits, Baud and Symbols Baud is a measurement of transmission speed in asynchronous communication. Because of advances in modem communication technology, this term is frequently misused when describing the data rates in newer devices. Traditionally, a Baud Rate represents the number of bits that are actually being sent over the media, not the amount of data that is actually moved from one DTE device to the other. The Baud count includes the overhead bits Start, Stop and Parity that are generated by the sending UART and removed by the receiving UART. This means that seven-bit words of data actually take 10 bits to be completely transmitted. Therefore, a modem capable of moving 300 bits per second from one place to another can normally only move 30 7-bit words if Parity is used and one Start and Stop bit are present. If 8-bit data words are used and Parity bits are also used, the data rate falls to 27.27 words per second, because it now takes 11 bits to send the eight-bit words, and the modem still only sends 300 bits per second. The formula for converting bytes per second into a baud rate and vice versa was simple until error-correcting modems came along. These modems receive the serial stream of bits from the UART in the host computer (even when internal modems are used the data is still frequently serialized) and converts the bits back into bytes. These bytes are then combined into packets and sent over the phone line using a Synchronous transmission method. This means that the Stop, Start, and Parity bits added by the UART in the DTE (the computer) were removed by the modem before transmission by the sending modem. When these bytes are received by the remote modem, the remote modem adds Start, Stop and Parity bits to the words, converts them to a serial format and then sends them to the receiving UART in the remote computer, who then strips the Start, Stop and Parity bits. The reason all these extra conversions are done is so that the two modems can perform error correction, which means that the receiving modem is able to ask the sending modem to resend a block of data that was not received with the correct checksum. This checking is handled by the modems, and the DTE devices are usually unaware that the process is occurring. By striping the Start, Stop and Parity bits, the additional bits of data that the two modems must share between themselves to perform error-correction are mostly concealed from the effective transmission rate seen by the sending and receiving DTE equipment. For example, if a modem sends ten 7-bit words to another modem without including the Start, Stop and Parity bits, the sending modem will be able to add 30 bits of its own information that the receiving modem can use to do error-correction without impacting the transmission speed of the real data. The use of the term Baud is further confused by modems that perform compression. A single 8-bit word passed over the telephone line might represent a dozen words that were transmitted to the sending modem. The receiving modem will expand the data back to its original content and pass that data to the receiving DTE. Modern modems also include buffers that allow the rate that bits move across the phone line (DCE to DCE) to be a different speed than the speed that the bits move between the DTE and DCE on both ends of the conversation. Normally the speed between the DTE and DCE is higher than the DCE to DCE speed because of the use of compression by the modems. Because the number of bits needed to describe a byte varied during the trip between the two machines plus the differing bits-per-seconds speeds that are used present on the DTE-DCE and DCE-DCE links, the usage of the term Baud to describe the overall communication speed causes problems and can misrepresent the true transmission speed. So Bits Per Second (bps) is the correct term to use to describe the transmission rate seen at the DCE to DCE interface and Baud or Bits Per Second are acceptable terms to use when a connection is made between two systems with a wired connection, or if a modem is in use that is not performing error-correction or compression. Modern high speed modems (2400, 9600, 14,400, and 19,200bps) in reality still operate at or below 2400 baud, or more accurately, 2400 Symbols per second. High speed modem are able to encode more bits of data into each Symbol using a technique called Constellation Stuffing, which is why the effective bits per second rate of the modem is higher, but the modem continues to operate within the limited audio bandwidth that the telephone system provides. Modems operating at 28,800 and higher speeds have variable Symbol rates, but the technique is the same. The IBM Personal Computer UART Starting with the original IBM Personal Computer, IBM selected the National Semiconductor INS8250 UART for use in the IBM PC Parallel/Serial Adapter. Subsequent generations of compatible computers from IBM and other vendors continued to use the INS8250 or improved versions of the National Semiconductor UART family. National Semiconductor UART Family Tree There have been several versions and subsequent generations of the INS8250 UART. Each major version is described below. INS8250 -> INS8250B \ \ \-> INS8250A -> INS82C50A \ \ \-> NS16450 -> NS16C450 \ \ \-> NS16550 -> NS16550A -> PC16550D INS8250 This part was used in the original IBM PC and IBM PC/XT. The original name for this part was the INS8250 ACE (Asynchronous Communications Element) and it is made from NMOS technology. The 8250 uses eight I/O ports and has a one-byte send and a one-byte receive buffer. This original UART has several race conditions and other flaws. The original IBM BIOS includes code to work around these flaws, but this made the BIOS dependent on the flaws being present, so subsequent parts like the 8250A, 16450 or 16550 could not be used in the original IBM PC or IBM PC/XT. INS8250-B This is the slower speed of the INS8250 made from NMOS technology. It contains the same problems as the original INS8250. INS8250A An improved version of the INS8250 using XMOS technology with various functional flaws corrected. The INS8250A was used initially in PC clone computers by vendors who used clean BIOS designs. Because of the corrections in the chip, this part could not be used with a BIOS compatible with the INS8250 or INS8250B. INS82C50A This is a CMOS version (low power consumption) of the INS8250A and has similar functional characteristics. NS16450 Same as NS8250A with improvements so it can be used with faster CPU bus designs. IBM used this part in the IBM AT and updated the IBM BIOS to no longer rely on the bugs in the INS8250. NS16C450 This is a CMOS version (low power consumption) of the NS16450. NS16550 Same as NS16450 with a 16-byte send and receive buffer but the buffer design was flawed and could not be reliably be used. NS16550A Same as NS16550 with the buffer flaws corrected. The 16550A and its successors have become the most popular UART design in the PC industry, mainly due it its ability to reliably handle higher data rates on operating systems with sluggish interrupt response times. NS16C552 This component consists of two NS16C550A CMOS UARTs in a single package. PC16550D Same as NS16550A with subtle flaws corrected. This is revision D of the 16550 family and is the latest design available from National Semiconductor. The NS16550AF and the PC16550D are the same thing National reorganized their part numbering system a few years ago, and the NS16550AFN no longer exists by that name. (If you have a NS16550AFN, look at the date code on the part, which is a four digit number that usually starts with a nine. The first two digits of the number are the year, and the last two digits are the week in that year when the part was packaged. If you have a NS16550AFN, it is probably a few years old.) The new numbers are like PC16550DV, with minor differences in the suffix letters depending on the package material and its shape. (A description of the numbering system can be found below.) It is important to understand that in some stores, you may pay $15(US) for a NS16550AFN made in 1990 and in the next bin are the new PC16550DN parts with minor fixes that National has made since the AFN part was in production, the PC16550DN was probably made in the past six months and it costs half (as low as $5(US) in volume) as much as the NS16550AFN because they are readily available. As the supply of NS16550AFN chips continues to shrink, the price will probably continue to increase until more people discover and accept that the PC16550DN really has the same function as the old part number. National Semiconductor Part Numbering System The older NSnnnnnrqp part numbers are now of the format PCnnnnnrgp. The r is the revision field. The current revision of the 16550 from National Semiconductor is D. The p is the package-type field. The types are: "F" QFP (quad flat pack) L lead type "N" DIP (dual inline package) through hole straight lead type "V" LPCC (lead plastic chip carrier) J lead type The g is the product grade field. If an I precedes the package-type letter, it indicates an industrial grade part, which has higher specs than a standard part but not as high as Military Specification (Milspec) component. This is an optional field. So what we used to call a NS16550AFN (DIP Package) is now called a PC16550DN or PC16550DIN. Other Vendors and Similar UARTs Over the years, the 8250, 8250A, 16450 and 16550 have been licensed or copied by other chip vendors. In the case of the 8250, 8250A and 16450, the exact circuit (the megacell) was licensed to many vendors, including Western Digital and Intel. Other vendors reverse-engineered the part or produced emulations that had similar behavior. In internal modems, the modem designer will frequently emulate the 8250A/16450 with the modem microprocessor, and the emulated UART will frequently have a hidden buffer consisting of several hundred bytes. Because of the size of the buffer, these emulations can be as reliable as a 16550A in their ability to handle high speed data. However, most operating systems will still report that the UART is only a 8250A or 16450, and may not make effective use of the extra buffering present in the emulated UART unless special drivers are used. Some modem makers are driven by market forces to abandon a design that has hundreds of bytes of buffer and instead use a 16550A UART so that the product will compare favorably in market comparisons even though the effective performance may be lowered by this action. A common misconception is that all parts with 16550A written on them are identical in performance. There are differences, and in some cases, outright flaws in most of these 16550A clones. When the NS16550 was developed, the National Semiconductor obtained several patents on the design and they also limited licensing, making it harder for other vendors to provide a chip with similar features. Because of the patents, reverse-engineered designs and emulations had to avoid infringing the claims covered by the patents. Subsequently, these copies almost never perform exactly the same as the NS16550A or PC16550D, which are the parts most computer and modem makers want to buy but are sometimes unwilling to pay the price required to get the genuine part. Some of the differences in the clone 16550A parts are unimportant, while others can prevent the device from being used at all with a given operating system or driver. These differences may show up when using other drivers, or when particular combinations of events occur that were not well tested or considered in the Windows driver. This is because most modem vendors and 16550-clone makers use the Microsoft drivers from Windows for Workgroups 3.11 and the Microsoft MSD utility as the primary tests for compatibility with the NS16550A. This over-simplistic criteria means that if a different operating system is used, problems could appear due to subtle differences between the clones and genuine components. National Semiconductor has made available a program named COMTEST that performs compatibility tests independent of any OS drivers. It should be remembered that the purpose of this type of program is to demonstrate the flaws in the products of the competition, so the program will report major as well as extremely subtle differences in behavior in the part being tested. In a series of tests performed by the author of this document in 1994, components made by National Semiconductor, TI, StarTech, and CMD as well as megacells and emulations embedded in internal modems were tested with COMTEST. A difference count for some of these components is listed below. Because these tests were performed in 1994, they may not reflect the current performance of the given product from a vendor. It should be noted that COMTEST normally aborts when an excessive number or certain types of problems have been detected. As part of this testing, COMTEST was modified so that it would not abort no matter how many differences were encountered. Vendor Part Number Errors (aka "differences" reported) National (PC16550DV) 0 To date, the author of this document has not found any non-National parts that report zero differences using the COMTEST program. It should also be noted that National has had five versions of the 16550 over the years and the newest parts behave a bit differently than the classic NS16550AFN that is considered the benchmark for functionality. COMTEST appears to turn a blind eye to the differences within the National product line and reports no errors on the National parts (except for the original 16550) even when there are official erratas that describe bugs in the A, B and C revisions of the parts, so this bias in COMTEST must be taken into account. National (NS16550AFN) 0 National (NS16C552V) 0 TI (TL16550AFN) 3 CMD (16C550PE) 19 StarTech (ST16C550J) 23 Rockwell Reference modem with internal 16550 or an emulation (RC144DPi/C3000-25) 117 Sierra Modem with an internal 16550 (SC11951/SC11351) 91 It is important to understand that a simple count of differences from COMTEST does not reveal a lot about what differences are important and which are not. For example, about half of the differences reported in the two modems listed above that have internal UARTs were caused by the clone UARTs not supporting five- and six-bit character modes. The real 16550, 16450, and 8250 UARTs all support these modes and COMTEST checks the functionality of these modes so over fifty differences are reported. However, almost no modern modem supports five- or six-bit characters, particularly those with error-correction and compression capabilities. This means that the differences related to five- and six-bit character modes can be discounted. Many of the differences COMTEST reports have to do with timing. In many of the clone designs, when the host reads from one port, the status bits in some other port may not update in the same amount of time (some faster, some slower) as a real NS16550AFN and COMTEST looks for these differences. This means that the number of differences can be misleading in that one device may only have one or two differences but they are extremely serious, and some other device that updates the status registers faster or slower than the reference part (that would probably never affect the operation of a properly written driver) could have dozens of differences reported. COMTEST can be used as a screening tool to alert the administrator to the presence of potentially incompatible components that might cause problems or have to be handled as a special case. If you run COMTEST on a 16550 that is in a modem or a modem is attached to the serial port, you need to first issue a ATE0&W command to the modem so that the modem will not echo any of the test characters. If you forget to do this, COMTEST will report at least this one difference: Error (6)...Timeout interrupt failed: IIR = c1 LSR = 61 8250/16450/16550 Registers The 8250/16450/16550 UART occupies eight contiguous I/O port addresses. In the IBM PC, there are two defined locations for these eight ports and they are known collectively as COM1 and COM2. The makers of PC-clones and add-on cards have created two additional areas known as COM3 and COM4, but these extra COM ports conflict with other hardware on some systems. The most common conflict is with video adapters that provide IBM 8514 emulation. COM1 is located from 0x3f8 to 0x3ff and normally uses IRQ 4 COM2 is located from 0x2f8 to 0x2ff and normally uses IRQ 3 COM3 is located from 0x3e8 to 0x3ef and has no standardized IRQ COM4 is located from 0x2e8 to 0x2ef and has no standardized IRQ. A description of the I/O ports of the 8250/16450/16550 UART is provided below. I/O Port Access Allowed Description +0x00 write (DLAB==0) Transmit Holding Register (THR).Information written to this port are treated as data words and will be transmitted by the UART. +0x00 read (DLAB==0) Receive Buffer Register (RBR).Any data words received by the UART form the serial link are accessed by the host by reading this port. +0x00 write/read (DLAB==1) Divisor Latch LSB (DLL)This value will be divided from the master input clock (in the IBM PC, the master clock is 1.8432MHz) and the resulting clock will determine the baud rate of the UART. This register holds bits 0 thru 7 of the divisor. +0x01 write/read (DLAB==1) Divisor Latch MSB (DLH)This value will be divided from the master input clock (in the IBM PC, the master clock is 1.8432MHz) and the resulting clock will determine the baud rate of the UART. This register holds bits 8 thru 15 of the divisor. +0x01 write/read (DLAB==0) Interrupt Enable Register (IER)The 8250/16450/16550 UART classifies events into one of four categories. Each category can be configured to generate an interrupt when any of the events occurs. The 8250/16450/16550 UART generates a single external interrupt signal regardless of how many events in the enabled categories have occurred. It is up to the host processor to respond to the interrupt and then poll the enabled interrupt categories (usually all categories have interrupts enabled) to determine the true cause(s) of the interrupt. Bit 7 Reserved, always 0. Bit 6 Reserved, always 0. Bit 5 Reserved, always 0. Bit 4 Reserved, always 0. Bit 3 Enable Modem Status Interrupt (EDSSI). Setting this bit to "1" allows the UART to generate an interrupt when a change occurs on one or more of the status lines. Bit 2 Enable Receiver Line Status Interrupt (ELSI) Setting this bit to "1" causes the UART to generate an interrupt when the an error (or a BREAK signal) has been detected in the incoming data. Bit 1 Enable Transmitter Holding Register Empty Interrupt (ETBEI) Setting this bit to "1" causes the UART to generate an interrupt when the UART has room for one or more additional characters that are to be transmitted. Bit 0 Enable Received Data Available Interrupt (ERBFI) Setting this bit to "1" causes the UART to generate an interrupt when the UART has received enough characters to exceed the trigger level of the FIFO, or the FIFO timer has expired (stale data), or a single character has been received when the FIFO is disabled. +0x02 write FIFO Control Register (FCR) (This port does not exist on the 8250 and 16450 UART.) Bit 7 Receiver Trigger Bit #1 Bit 6 Receiver Trigger Bit #0These two bits control at what point the receiver is to generate an interrupt when the FIFO is active. 7 6 How many words are received before an interrupt is generated 0 0 1 0 1 4 1 0 8 1 1 14 Bit 5 Reserved, always 0. Bit 4 Reserved, always 0. Bit 3 DMA Mode Select. If Bit 0 is set to "1" (FIFOs enabled), setting this bit changes the operation of the -RXRDY and -TXRDY signals from Mode 0 to Mode 1. Bit 2 Transmit FIFO Reset. When a "1" is written to this bit, the contents of the FIFO are discarded. Any word currently being transmitted will be sent intact. This function is useful in aborting transfers. Bit 1 Receiver FIFO Reset. When a "1" is written to this bit, the contents of the FIFO are discarded. Any word currently being assembled in the shift register will be received intact. Bit 0 16550 FIFO Enable. When set, both the transmit and receive FIFOs are enabled. Any contents in the holding register, shift registers or FIFOs are lost when FIFOs are enabled or disabled. +0x02 read Interrupt Identification Register Bit 7 FIFOs enabled. On the 8250/16450 UART, this bit is zero. Bit 6 FIFOs enabled. On the 8250/16450 UART, this bit is zero. Bit 5 Reserved, always 0. Bit 4 Reserved, always 0. Bit 3 Interrupt ID Bit #2. On the 8250/16450 UART, this bit is zero. Bit 2 Interrupt ID Bit #1 Bit 1 Interrupt ID Bit #0.These three bits combine to report the category of event that caused the interrupt that is in progress. These categories have priorities, so if multiple categories of events occur at the same time, the UART will report the more important events first and the host must resolve the events in the order they are reported. All events that caused the current interrupt must be resolved before any new interrupts will be generated. (This is a limitation of the PC architecture.) 2 1 0 Priority Description 0 1 1 First Received Error (OE, PE, BI, or FE) 0 1 0 Second Received Data Available 1 1 0 Second Trigger level identification (Stale data in receive buffer) 0 0 1 Third Transmitter has room for more words (THRE) 0 0 0 Fourth Modem Status Change (-CTS, -DSR, -RI, or -DCD) Bit 0 Interrupt Pending Bit. If this bit is set to "0", then at least one interrupt is pending. +0x03 write/read Line Control Register (LCR) Bit 7 Divisor Latch Access Bit (DLAB). When set, access to the data transmit/receive register (THR/RBR) and the Interrupt Enable Register (IER) is disabled. Any access to these ports is now redirected to the Divisor Latch Registers. Setting this bit, loading the Divisor Registers, and clearing DLAB should be done with interrupts disabled. Bit 6 Set Break. When set to "1", the transmitter begins to transmit continuous Spacing until this bit is set to "0". This overrides any bits of characters that are being transmitted. Bit 5 Stick Parity. When parity is enabled, setting this bit causes parity to always be "1" or "0", based on the value of Bit 4. Bit 4 Even Parity Select (EPS). When parity is enabled and Bit 5 is "0", setting this bit causes even parity to be transmitted and expected. Otherwise, odd parity is used. Bit 3 Parity Enable (PEN). When set to "1", a parity bit is inserted between the last bit of the data and the Stop Bit. The UART will also expect parity to be present in the received data. Bit 2 Number of Stop Bits (STB). If set to "1" and using 5-bit data words, 1.5 Stop Bits are transmitted and expected in each data word. For 6, 7 and 8-bit data words, 2 Stop Bits are transmitted and expected. When this bit is set to "0", one Stop Bit is used on each data word. Bit 1 Word Length Select Bit #1 (WLSB1) Bit 0 Word Length Select Bit #0 (WLSB0) Together these bits specify the number of bits in each data word. 1 0 Word Length 0 0 5 Data Bits 0 1 6 Data Bits 1 0 7 Data Bits 1 1 8 Data Bits +0x04 write/read Modem Control Register (MCR) Bit 7 Reserved, always 0. Bit 6 Reserved, always 0. Bit 5 Reserved, always 0. Bit 4 Loop-Back Enable. When set to "1", the UART transmitter and receiver are internally connected together to allow diagnostic operations. In addition, the UART modem control outputs are connected to the UART modem control inputs. CTS is connected to RTS, DTR is connected to DSR, OUT1 is connected to RI, and OUT 2 is connected to DCD. Bit 3 OUT 2. An auxiliary output that the host processor may set high or low. In the IBM PC serial adapter (and most clones), OUT 2 is used to tri-state (disable) the interrupt signal from the 8250/16450/16550 UART. Bit 2 OUT 1. An auxiliary output that the host processor may set high or low. This output is not used on the IBM PC serial adapter. Bit 1 Request to Send (RTS). When set to "1", the output of the UART -RTS line is Low (Active). Bit 0 Data Terminal Ready (DTR). When set to "1", the output of the UART -DTR line is Low (Active). +0x05 write/read Line Status Register (LSR) Bit 7 Error in Receiver FIFO. On the 8250/16450 UART, this bit is zero. This bit is set to "1" when any of the bytes in the FIFO have one or more of the following error conditions: PE, FE, or BI. Bit 6 Transmitter Empty (TEMT). When set to "1", there are no words remaining in the transmit FIFO or the transmit shift register. The transmitter is completely idle. Bit 5 Transmitter Holding Register Empty (THRE). When set to "1", the FIFO (or holding register) now has room for at least one additional word to transmit. The transmitter may still be transmitting when this bit is set to "1". Bit 4 Break Interrupt (BI). The receiver has detected a Break signal. Bit 3 Framing Error (FE). A Start Bit was detected but the Stop Bit did not appear at the expected time. The received word is probably garbled. Bit 2 Parity Error (PE). The parity bit was incorrect for the word received. Bit 1 Overrun Error (OE). A new word was received and therewas no room in the receive buffer. The newly-arrived word in the shift register is discarded. On 8250/16450 UARTs, the word in the holding register is discarded and the newly- arrived word is put in the holding register. Bit 0 Data Ready (DR) One or more words are in the receive FIFO that the host may read. A word must be completely received and moved from the shift register into the FIFO (or holding register for 8250/16450 designs) before this bit is set. +0x06 write/read Modem Status Register (MSR) Bit 7 Data Carrier Detect (DCD). Reflects the state of the DCD line on the UART. Bit 6 Ring Indicator (RI). Reflects the state of the RI line on the UART. Bit 5 Data Set Ready (DSR). Reflects the state of the DSR line on the UART. Bit 4 Clear To Send (CTS). Reflects the state of the CTS line on the UART. Bit 3 Delta Data Carrier Detect (DDCD). Set to "1" if the -DCD line has changed state one more more times since the last time the MSR was read by the host. Bit 2 Trailing Edge Ring Indicator (TERI). Set to "1" if the -RI line has had a low to high transition since the last time the MSR was read by the host. Bit 1 Delta Data Set Ready (DDSR). Set to "1" if the -DSR line has changed state one more more times since the last time the MSR was read by the host. Bit 0 Delta Clear To Send (DCTS). Set to "1" if the -CTS line has changed state one more more times since the last time the MSR was read by the host. +0x07 write/read Scratch Register (SCR). This register performs no function in the UART. Any value can be written by the host to this location and read by the host later on. Beyond the 16550A UART Although National Semiconductor has not offered any components compatible with the 16550 that provide additional features, various other vendors have. Some of these components are described below. It should be understood that to effectively utilize these improvements, drivers may have to be provided by the chip vendor since most of the popular operating systems do not support features beyond those provided by the 16550. ST16650 By default this part is similar to the NS16550A, but an extended 32-byte send and receive buffer can be optionally enabled. Made by Startech. TIL16660 By default this part behaves similar to the NS16550A, but an extended 64-byte send and receive buffer can be optionally enabled. Made by Texas Instruments. Hayes ESP This proprietary plug-in card contains a 2048-byte send and receive buffer, and supports data rates to 230.4Kbit/sec. Made by Hayes. In addition to these dumb UARTs, many vendors produce intelligent serial communication boards. This type of design usually provides a microprocessor that interfaces with several UARTs, processes and buffers the data, and then alerts the main PC processor when necessary. Because the UARTs are not directly accessed by the PC processor in this type of communication system, it is not necessary for the vendor to use UARTs that are compatible with the 8250, 16450, or the 16550 UART. This leaves the designer free to components that may have better performance characteristics. Configuring the <devicename>sio</devicename> driver The sio driver provides support for NS8250-, NS16450-, NS16550 and NS16550A-based EIA RS-232C (CCITT V.24) communications interfaces. Several multiport cards are supported as well. See the sio4 manual page for detailed technical documentation. Digi International (DigiBoard) PC/8 Contributed by &a.awebster;.26 August 1995. Here is a config snippet from a machine with a Digi International PC/8 with 16550. It has 8 modems connected to these 8 lines, and they work just great. Do not forget to add options COM_MULTIPORT or it will not work very well! device sio4 at isa? port 0x100 tty flags 0xb05 device sio5 at isa? port 0x108 tty flags 0xb05 device sio6 at isa? port 0x110 tty flags 0xb05 device sio7 at isa? port 0x118 tty flags 0xb05 device sio8 at isa? port 0x120 tty flags 0xb05 device sio9 at isa? port 0x128 tty flags 0xb05 device sio10 at isa? port 0x130 tty flags 0xb05 device sio11 at isa? port 0x138 tty flags 0xb05 irq 9 vector siointr The trick in setting this up is that the MSB of the flags represent the last SIO port, in this case 11 so flags are 0xb05. Boca 16 Contributed by &a.whiteside;.26 August 1995. The procedures to make a Boca 16 pord board with FreeBSD are pretty straightforward, but you will need a couple things to make it work: You either need the kernel sources installed so you can recompile the necessary options or you will need someone else to compile it for you. The 2.0.5 default kernel does not come with multiport support enabled and you will need to add a device entry for each port anyways. Two, you will need to know the interrupt and IO setting for your Boca Board so you can set these options properly in the kernel. One important note — the actual UART chips for the Boca 16 are in the connector box, not on the internal board itself. So if you have it unplugged, probes of those ports will fail. I have never tested booting with the box unplugged and plugging it back in, and I suggest you do not either. If you do not already have a custom kernel configuration file set up, refer to for general procedures. The following are the specifics for the Boca 16 board and assume you are using the kernel name MYKERNEL and editing with vi. Add the line options COM_MULTIPORT to the config file. Where the current device sion lines are, you will need to add 16 more devices. Only the last device includes the interrupt vector for the board. (See the sio4 manual page for detail as to why.) The following example is for a Boca Board with an interrupt of 3, and a base IO address 100h. The IO address for Each port is +8 hexadecimal from the previous port, thus the 100h, 108h, 110h... addresses. device sio1 at isa? port 0x100 tty flags 0x1005 device sio2 at isa? port 0x108 tty flags 0x1005 device sio3 at isa? port 0x110 tty flags 0x1005 device sio4 at isa? port 0x118 tty flags 0x1005 … device sio15 at isa? port 0x170 tty flags 0x1005 device sio16 at isa? port 0x178 tty flags 0x1005 irq 3 vector siointr The flags entry must be changed from this example unless you are using the exact same sio assignments. Flags are set according to 0xMYY where M indicates the minor number of the master port (the last port on a Boca 16) and YY indicates if FIFO is enabled or disabled(enabled), IRQ sharing is used(yes) and if there is an AST/4 compatible IRQ control register(no). In this example, flags 0x1005 indicates that the master port is sio16. If I added another board and assigned sio17 through sio28, the flags for all 16 ports on that board would be 0x1C05, where 1C indicates the minor number of the master port. Do not change the 05 setting. Save and complete the kernel configuration, recompile, install and reboot. Presuming you have successfully installed the recompiled kernel and have it set to the correct address and IRQ, your boot message should indicate the successful probe of the Boca ports as follows: (obviously the sio numbers, IO and IRQ could be different) sio1 at 0x100-0x107 flags 0x1005 on isa sio1: type 16550A (multiport) sio2 at 0x108-0x10f flags 0x1005 on isa sio2: type 16550A (multiport) sio3 at 0x110-0x117 flags 0x1005 on isa sio3: type 16550A (multiport) sio4 at 0x118-0x11f flags 0x1005 on isa sio4: type 16550A (multiport) sio5 at 0x120-0x127 flags 0x1005 on isa sio5: type 16550A (multiport) sio6 at 0x128-0x12f flags 0x1005 on isa sio6: type 16550A (multiport) sio7 at 0x130-0x137 flags 0x1005 on isa sio7: type 16550A (multiport) sio8 at 0x138-0x13f flags 0x1005 on isa sio8: type 16550A (multiport) sio9 at 0x140-0x147 flags 0x1005 on isa sio9: type 16550A (multiport) sio10 at 0x148-0x14f flags 0x1005 on isa sio10: type 16550A (multiport) sio11 at 0x150-0x157 flags 0x1005 on isa sio11: type 16550A (multiport) sio12 at 0x158-0x15f flags 0x1005 on isa sio12: type 16550A (multiport) sio13 at 0x160-0x167 flags 0x1005 on isa sio13: type 16550A (multiport) sio14 at 0x168-0x16f flags 0x1005 on isa sio14: type 16550A (multiport) sio15 at 0x170-0x177 flags 0x1005 on isa sio15: type 16550A (multiport) sio16 at 0x178-0x17f irq 3 flags 0x1005 on isa sio16: type 16550A (multiport master) If the messages go by too fast to see, &prompt.root; dmesg | more will show you the boot messages. Next, appropriate entries in /dev for the devices must be made using the /dev/MAKEDEV script. After becoming root: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV tty1 &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV cua1 (everything in between) &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV ttyg &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV cuag If you do not want or need callout devices for some reason, you can dispense with making the cua* devices. If you want a quick and sloppy way to make sure the devices are working, you can simply plug a modem into each port and (as root) &prompt.root; echo at > ttyd* for each device you have made. You should see the RX lights flash for each working port. Configuring the <devicename>cy</devicename> driver Contributed by &a.alex;.6 June 1996. The Cyclades multiport cards are based on the cy driver instead of the usual sio driver used by other multiport cards. Configuration is a simple matter of: Add the cy device to your (note that your irq and iomem settings may differ). device cy0 at isa? tty irq 10 iomem 0xd4000 iosiz 0x2000 vector cyintr the new kernel. Make the by typing (the following example assumes an 8-port board): &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; for i in 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7;do ./MAKEDEV cuac$i ttyc$i;done If appropriate, add entries to by duplicating serial device (ttyd) entries and using ttyc in place of ttyd. For example: ttyc0 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" unknown on insecure ttyc1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" unknown on insecure ttyc2 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" unknown on insecure … ttyc7 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" unknown on insecure Reboot with the new kernel. * Parallel ports * Modems * Network cards * Keyboards * Mice * Other Storage Devices Using ESDI hard disks Copyright © 1995, &a.wilko;.24 September 1995. ESDI is an acronym that means Enhanced Small Device Interface. It is loosely based on the good old ST506/412 interface originally devised by Seagate Technology, the makers of the first affordable 5.25" winchester disk. The acronym says Enhanced, and rightly so. In the first place the speed of the interface is higher, 10 or 15 Mbits/second instead of the 5 Mbits/second of ST412 interfaced drives. Secondly some higher level commands are added, making the ESDI interface somewhat 'smarter' to the operating system driver writers. It is by no means as smart as SCSI by the way. ESDI is standardized by ANSI. Capacities of the drives are boosted by putting more sectors on each track. Typical is 35 sectors per track, high capacity drives I have seen were up to 54 sectors/track. Although ESDI has been largely obsoleted by IDE and SCSI interfaces, the availability of free or cheap surplus drives makes them ideal for low (or now) budget systems. Concepts of ESDI Physical connections The ESDI interface uses two cables connected to each drive. One cable is a 34 pin flat cable edge connector that carries the command and status signals from the controller to the drive and vice-versa. The command cable is daisy chained between all the drives. So, it forms a bus onto which all drives are connected. The second cable is a 20 pin flat cable edge connector that carries the data to and from the drive. This cable is radially connected, so each drive has its own direct connection to the controller. To the best of my knowledge PC ESDI controllers are limited to using a maximum of 2 drives per controller. This is compatibility feature(?) left over from the WD1003 standard that reserves only a single bit for device addressing. Device addressing On each command cable a maximum of 7 devices and 1 controller can be present. To enable the controller to uniquely identify which drive it addresses, each ESDI device is equipped with jumpers or switches to select the devices address. On PC type controllers the first drive is set to address 0, the second disk to address 1. Always make sure you set each disk to an unique address! So, on a PC with its two drives/controller maximum the first drive is drive 0, the second is drive 1. Termination The daisy chained command cable (the 34 pin cable remember?) needs to be terminated at the last drive on the chain. For this purpose ESDI drives come with a termination resistor network that can be removed or disabled by a jumper when it is not used. So, one and only one drive, the one at the farthest end of the command cable has its terminator installed/enabled. The controller automatically terminates the other end of the cable. Please note that this implies that the controller must be at one end of the cable and not in the middle. Using ESDI disks with FreeBSD Why is ESDI such a pain to get working in the first place? People who tried ESDI disks with FreeBSD are known to have developed a profound sense of frustration. A combination of factors works against you to produce effects that are hard to understand when you have never seen them before. This has also led to the popular legend ESDI and FreeBSD is a plain NO-GO. The following sections try to list all the pitfalls and solutions. ESDI speed variants As briefly mentioned before, ESDI comes in two speed flavors. The older drives and controllers use a 10 Mbits/second data transfer rate. Newer stuff uses 15 Mbits/second. It is not hard to imagine that 15 Mbits/second drive cause problems on controllers laid out for 10 Mbits/second. As always, consult your controller and drive documentation to see if things match. Stay on track Mainstream ESDI drives use 34 to 36 sectors per track. Most (older) controllers cannot handle more than this number of sectors. Newer, higher capacity, drives use higher numbers of sectors per track. For instance, I own a 670 Mb drive that has 54 sectors per track. In my case, the controller could not handle this number of sectors. It proved to work well except that it only used 35 sectors on each track. This meant losing a lot of disk space. Once again, check the documentation of your hardware for more info. Going out-of-spec like in the example might or might not work. Give it a try or get another more capable controller. Hard or soft sectoring Most ESDI drives allow hard or soft sectoring to be selected using a jumper. Hard sectoring means that the drive will produce a sector pulse on the start of each new sector. The controller uses this pulse to tell when it should start to write or read. Hard sectoring allows a selection of sector size (normally 256, 512 or 1024 bytes per formatted sector). FreeBSD uses 512 byte sectors. The number of sectors per track also varies while still using the same number of bytes per formatted sector. The number of unformatted bytes per sector varies, dependent on your controller it needs more or less overhead bytes to work correctly. Pushing more sectors on a track of course gives you more usable space, but might give problems if your controller needs more bytes than the drive offers. In case of soft sectoring, the controller itself determines where to start/stop reading or writing. For ESDI hard sectoring is the default (at least on everything I came across). I never felt the urge to try soft sectoring. In general, experiment with sector settings before you install FreeBSD because you need to re-run the low-level format after each change. Low level formatting ESDI drives need to be low level formatted before they are usable. A reformat is needed whenever you figgle with the number of sectors/track jumpers or the physical orientation of the drive (horizontal, vertical). So, first think, then format. The format time must not be underestimated, for big disks it can take hours. After a low level format, a surface scan is done to find and flag bad sectors. Most disks have a manufacturer bad block list listed on a piece of paper or adhesive sticker. In addition, on most disks the list is also written onto the disk. Please use the manufacturer's list. It is much easier to remap a defect now than after FreeBSD is installed. Stay away from low-level formatters that mark all sectors of a track as bad as soon as they find one bad sector. Not only does this waste space, it also and more importantly causes you grief with bad144 (see the section on bad144). Translations Translations, although not exclusively a ESDI-only problem, might give you real trouble. Translations come in multiple flavors. Most of them have in common that they attempt to work around the limitations posed upon disk geometries by the original IBM PC/AT design (thanks IBM!). First of all there is the (in)famous 1024 cylinder limit. For a system to be able to boot, the stuff (whatever operating system) must be in the first 1024 cylinders of a disk. Only 10 bits are available to encode the cylinder number. For the number of sectors the limit is 64 (0-63). When you combine the 1024 cylinder limit with the 16 head limit (also a design feature) you max out at fairly limited disk sizes. To work around this problem, the manufacturers of ESDI PC controllers added a BIOS prom extension on their boards. This BIOS extension handles disk I/O for booting (and for some operating systems all disk I/O) by using translation. For instance, a big drive might be presented to the system as having 32 heads and 64 sectors/track. The result is that the number of cylinders is reduced to something below 1024 and is therefore usable by the system without problems. It is noteworthy to know that FreeBSD does not use the BIOS after its kernel has started. More on this later. A second reason for translations is the fact that most older system BIOSes could only handle drives with 17 sectors per track (the old ST412 standard). Newer system BIOSes usually have a user-defined drive type (in most cases this is drive type 47). Whatever you do to translations after reading this document, keep in mind that if you have multiple operating systems on the same disk, all must use the same translation While on the subject of translations, I have seen one controller type (but there are probably more like this) offer the option to logically split a drive in multiple partitions as a BIOS option. I had select 1 drive == 1 partition because this controller wrote this info onto the disk. On power-up it read the info and presented itself to the system based on the info from the disk. Spare sectoring Most ESDI controllers offer the possibility to remap bad sectors. During/after the low-level format of the disk bad sectors are marked as such, and a replacement sector is put in place (logically of course) of the bad one. In most cases the remapping is done by using N-1 sectors on each track for actual data storage, and sector N itself is the spare sector. N is the total number of sectors physically available on the track. The idea behind this is that the operating system sees a 'perfect' disk without bad sectors. In the case of FreeBSD this concept is not usable. The problem is that the translation from bad to good is performed by the BIOS of the ESDI controller. FreeBSD, being a true 32 bit operating system, does not use the BIOS after it has been booted. Instead, it has device drivers that talk directly to the hardware. So: don't use spare sectoring, bad block remapping or whatever it may be called by the controller manufacturer when you want to use the disk for FreeBSD. Bad block handling The preceding section leaves us with a problem. The controller's bad block handling is not usable and still FreeBSD's filesystems assume perfect media without any flaws. To solve this problem, FreeBSD use the bad144 tool. Bad144 (named after a Digital Equipment standard for bad block handling) scans a FreeBSD slice for bad blocks. Having found these bad blocks, it writes a table with the offending block numbers to the end of the FreeBSD slice. When the disk is in operation, the disk accesses are checked against the table read from the disk. Whenever a block number is requested that is in the bad144 list, a replacement block (also from the end of the FreeBSD slice) is used. In this way, the bad144 replacement scheme presents 'perfect' media to the FreeBSD filesystems. There are a number of potential pitfalls associated with the use of bad144. First of all, the slice cannot have more than 126 bad sectors. If your drive has a high number of bad sectors, you might need to divide it into multiple FreeBSD slices each containing less than 126 bad sectors. Stay away from low-level format programs that mark every sector of a track as bad when they find a flaw on the track. As you can imagine, the 126 limit is quickly reached when the low-level format is done this way. Second, if the slice contains the root filesystem, the slice should be within the 1024 cylinder BIOS limit. During the boot process the bad144 list is read using the BIOS and this only succeeds when the list is within the 1024 cylinder limit. The restriction is not that only the root filesystem must be within the 1024 cylinder limit, but rather the entire slice that contains the root filesystem. Kernel configuration ESDI disks are handled by the same wddriver as IDE and ST412 MFM disks. The wd driver should work for all WD1003 compatible interfaces. Most hardware is jumperable for one of two different I/O address ranges and IRQ lines. This allows you to have two wd type controllers in one system. When your hardware allows non-standard strappings, you can use these with FreeBSD as long as you enter the correct info into the kernel config file. An example from the kernel config file (they live in /sys/i386/conf BTW). # First WD compatible controller controller wdc0 at isa? port "IO_WD1" bio irq 14 vector wdintr disk wd0 at wdc0 drive 0 disk wd1 at wdc0 drive 1 # Second WD compatible controller controller wdc1 at isa? port "IO_WD2" bio irq 15 vector wdintr disk wd2 at wdc1 drive 0 disk wd3 at wdc1 drive 1 Particulars on ESDI hardware Adaptec 2320 controllers I successfully installed FreeBSD onto a ESDI disk controlled by a ACB-2320. No other operating system was present on the disk. To do so I low level formatted the disk using NEFMT.EXE (ftpable from www.adaptec.com) and answered NO to the question whether the disk should be formatted with a spare sector on each track. The BIOS on the ACD-2320 was disabled. I used the free configurable option in the system BIOS to allow the BIOS to boot it. Before using NEFMT.EXE I tried to format the disk using the ACB-2320 BIOS builtin formatter. This proved to be a show stopper, because it did not give me an option to disable spare sectoring. With spare sectoring enabled the FreeBSD installation process broke down on the bad144 run. Please check carefully which ACB-232xy variant you have. The x is either 0 or 2, indicating a controller without or with a floppy controller on board. The y is more interesting. It can either be a blank, a A-8 or a D. A blank indicates a plain 10 Mbits/second controller. An A-8 indicates a 15 Mbits/second controller capable of handling 52 sectors/track. A D means a 15 Mbits/second controller that can also handle drives with > 36 sectors/track (also 52 ?). All variations should be capable of using 1:1 interleaving. Use 1:1, FreeBSD is fast enough to handle it. Western Digital WD1007 controllers I successfully installed FreeBSD onto a ESDI disk controlled by a WD1007 controller. To be precise, it was a WD1007-WA2. Other variations of the WD1007 do exist. To get it to work, I had to disable the sector translation and the WD1007's onboard BIOS. This implied I could not use the low-level formatter built into this BIOS. Instead, I grabbed WDFMT.EXE from www.wdc.com Running this formatted my drive just fine. Ultrastor U14F controllers According to multiple reports from the net, Ultrastor ESDI boards work OK with FreeBSD. I lack any further info on particular settings. Further reading If you intend to do some serious ESDI hacking, you might want to have the official standard at hand: The latest ANSI X3T10 committee document is: Enhanced Small Device Interface (ESDI) [X3.170-1990/X3.170a-1991] [X3T10/792D Rev 11] On Usenet the newsgroup comp.periphs is a noteworthy place to look for more info. The World Wide Web (WWW) also proves to be a very handy info source: For info on Adaptec ESDI controllers see http://www.adaptec.com/. For info on Western Digital controllers see http://www.wdc.com/. Thanks to... Andrew Gordon for sending me an Adaptec 2320 controller and ESDI disk for testing. What is SCSI? Copyright © 1995, &a.wilko;.July 6, 1996. SCSI is an acronym for Small Computer Systems Interface. It is an ANSI standard that has become one of the leading I/O buses in the computer industry. The foundation of the SCSI standard was laid by Shugart Associates (the same guys that gave the world the first mini floppy disks) when they introduced the SASI bus (Shugart Associates Standard Interface). After some time an industry effort was started to come to a more strict standard allowing devices from different vendors to work together. This effort was recognized in the ANSI SCSI-1 standard. The SCSI-1 standard (approx 1985) is rapidly becoming obsolete. The current standard is SCSI-2 (see ), with SCSI-3 on the drawing boards. In addition to a physical interconnection standard, SCSI defines a logical (command set) standard to which disk devices must adhere. This standard is called the Common Command Set (CCS) and was developed more or less in parallel with ANSI SCSI-1. SCSI-2 includes the (revised) CCS as part of the standard itself. The commands are dependent on the type of device at hand. It does not make much sense of course to define a Write command for a scanner. The SCSI bus is a parallel bus, which comes in a number of variants. The oldest and most used is an 8 bit wide bus, with single-ended signals, carried on 50 wires. (If you do not know what single-ended means, do not worry, that is what this document is all about.) Modern designs also use 16 bit wide buses, with differential signals. This allows transfer speeds of 20Mbytes/second, on cables lengths of up to 25 meters. SCSI-2 allows a maximum bus width of 32 bits, using an additional cable. Quickly emerging are Ultra SCSI (also called Fast-20) and Ultra2 (also called Fast-40). Fast-20 is 20 million transfers per second (20 Mbytes/sec on a 8 bit bus), Fast-40 is 40 million transfers per second (40 Mbytes/sec on a 8 bit bus). Most hard drives sold today are single-ended Ultra SCSI (8 or 16 bits). Of course the SCSI bus not only has data lines, but also a number of control signals. A very elaborate protocol is part of the standard to allow multiple devices to share the bus in an efficient manner. In SCSI-2, the data is always checked using a separate parity line. In pre-SCSI-2 designs parity was optional. In SCSI-3 even faster bus types are introduced, along with a serial SCSI busses that reduces the cabling overhead and allows a higher maximum bus length. You might see names like SSA and Fiberchannel in this context. None of the serial buses are currently in widespread use (especially not in the typical FreeBSD environment). For this reason the serial bus types are not discussed any further. As you could have guessed from the description above, SCSI devices are intelligent. They have to be to adhere to the SCSI standard (which is over 2 inches thick BTW). So, for a hard disk drive for instance you do not specify a head/cylinder/sector to address a particular block, but simply the number of the block you want. Elaborate caching schemes, automatic bad block replacement etc are all made possible by this 'intelligent device' approach. On a SCSI bus, each possible pair of devices can communicate. Whether their function allows this is another matter, but the standard does not restrict it. To avoid signal contention, the 2 devices have to arbitrate for the bus before using it. The philosophy of SCSI is to have a standard that allows older-standard devices to work with newer-standard ones. So, an old SCSI-1 device should normally work on a SCSI-2 bus. I say Normally, because it is not absolutely sure that the implementation of an old device follows the (old) standard closely enough to be acceptable on a new bus. Modern devices are usually more well-behaved, because the standardization has become more strict and is better adhered to by the device manufacturers. Generally speaking, the chances of getting a working set of devices on a single bus is better when all the devices are SCSI-2 or newer. This implies that you do not have to dump all your old stuff when you get that shiny 2GB disk: I own a system on which a pre-SCSI-1 disk, a SCSI-2 QIC tape unit, a SCSI-1 helical scan tape unit and 2 SCSI-1 disks work together quite happily. From a performance standpoint you might want to separate your older and newer (=faster) devices however. Components of SCSI As said before, SCSI devices are smart. The idea is to put the knowledge about intimate hardware details onto the SCSI device itself. In this way, the host system does not have to worry about things like how many heads are hard disks has, or how many tracks there are on a specific tape device. If you are curious, the standard specifies commands with which you can query your devices on their hardware particulars. FreeBSD uses this capability during boot to check out what devices are connected and whether they need any special treatment. The advantage of intelligent devices is obvious: the device drivers on the host can be made in a much more generic fashion, there is no longer a need to change (and qualify!) drivers for every odd new device that is introduced. For cabling and connectors there is a golden rule: get good stuff. With bus speeds going up all the time you will save yourself a lot of grief by using good material. So, gold plated connectors, shielded cabling, sturdy connector hoods with strain reliefs etc are the way to go. Second golden rule: do no use cables longer than necessary. I once spent 3 days hunting down a problem with a flaky machine only to discover that shortening the SCSI bus by 1 meter solved the problem. And the original bus length was well within the SCSI specification. SCSI bus types From an electrical point of view, there are two incompatible bus types: single-ended and differential. This means that there are two different main groups of SCSI devices and controllers, which cannot be mixed on the same bus. It is possible however to use special converter hardware to transform a single-ended bus into a differential one (and vice versa). The differences between the bus types are explained in the next sections. In lots of SCSI related documentation there is a sort of jargon in use to abbreviate the different bus types. A small list: FWD: Fast Wide Differential FND: Fast Narrow Differential SE: Single Ended FN: Fast Narrow etc. With a minor amount of imagination one can usually imagine what is meant. Wide is a bit ambiguous, it can indicate 16 or 32 bit buses. As far as I know, the 32 bit variant is not (yet) in use, so wide normally means 16 bit. Fast means that the timing on the bus is somewhat different, so that on a narrow (8 bit) bus 10 Mbytes/sec are possible instead of 5 Mbytes/sec for 'slow' SCSI. As discussed before, bus speeds of 20 and 40 million transfers/second are also emerging (Fast-20 == Ultra SCSI and Fast-40 == Ultra2 SCSI). The data lines > 8 are only used for data transfers and device addressing. The transfers of commands and status messages etc are only performed on the lowest 8 data lines. The standard allows narrow devices to operate on a wide bus. The usable bus width is negotiated between the devices. You have to watch your device addressing closely when mixing wide and narrow. Single ended buses A single-ended SCSI bus uses signals that are either 5 Volts or 0 Volts (indeed, TTL levels) and are relative to a COMMON ground reference. A singled ended 8 bit SCSI bus has approximately 25 ground lines, who are all tied to a single `rail' on all devices. A standard single ended bus has a maximum length of 6 meters. If the same bus is used with fast-SCSI devices, the maximum length allowed drops to 3 meters. Fast-SCSI means that instead of 5Mbytes/sec the bus allows 10Mbytes/sec transfers. Fast-20 (Ultra SCSI) and Fast-40 allow for 20 and 40 million transfers/second respectively. So, F20 is 20 Mbytes/second on a 8 bit bus, 40 Mbytes/second on a 16 bit bus etc. For F20 the max bus length is 1.5 meters, for F40 it becomes 0.75 meters. Be aware that F20 is pushing the limits quite a bit, so you will quickly find out if your SCSI bus is electrically sound. If some devices on your bus use 'fast' to communicate your bus must adhere to the length restrictions for fast buses! It is obvious that with the newer fast-SCSI devices the bus length can become a real bottleneck. This is why the differential SCSI bus was introduced in the SCSI-2 standard. For connector pinning and connector types please refer to the SCSI-2 standard (see ) itself, connectors etc are listed there in painstaking detail. Beware of devices using non-standard cabling. For instance Apple uses a 25pin D-type connecter (like the one on serial ports and parallel printers). Considering that the official SCSI bus needs 50 pins you can imagine the use of this connector needs some 'creative cabling'. The reduction of the number of ground wires they used is a bad idea, you better stick to 50 pins cabling in accordance with the SCSI standard. For Fast-20 and 40 do not even think about buses like this. Differential buses A differential SCSI bus has a maximum length of 25 meters. Quite a difference from the 3 meters for a single-ended fast-SCSI bus. The idea behind differential signals is that each bus signal has its own return wire. So, each signal is carried on a (preferably twisted) pair of wires. The voltage difference between these two wires determines whether the signal is asserted or de-asserted. To a certain extent the voltage difference between ground and the signal wire pair is not relevant (do not try 10 kVolts though). It is beyond the scope of this document to explain why this differential idea is so much better. Just accept that electrically seen the use of differential signals gives a much better noise margin. You will normally find differential buses in use for inter-cabinet connections. Because of the lower cost single ended is mostly used for shorter buses like inside cabinets. There is nothing that stops you from using differential stuff with FreeBSD, as long as you use a controller that has device driver support in FreeBSD. As an example, Adaptec marketed the AHA1740 as a single ended board, whereas the AHA1744 was differential. The software interface to the host is identical for both. Terminators Terminators in SCSI terminology are resistor networks that are used to get a correct impedance matching. Impedance matching is important to get clean signals on the bus, without reflections or ringing. If you once made a long distance telephone call on a bad line you probably know what reflections are. With 20Mbytes/sec traveling over your SCSI bus, you do not want signals echoing back. Terminators come in various incarnations, with more or less sophisticated designs. Of course, there are internal and external variants. Many SCSI devices come with a number of sockets in which a number of resistor networks can (must be!) installed. If you remove terminators from a device, carefully store them. You will need them when you ever decide to reconfigure your SCSI bus. There is enough variation in even these simple tiny things to make finding the exact replacement a frustrating business. There are also SCSI devices that have a single jumper to enable or disable a built-in terminator. There are special terminators you can stick onto a flat cable bus. Others look like external connectors, or a connector hood without a cable. So, lots of choice as you can see. There is much debate going on if and when you should switch from simple resistor (passive) terminators to active terminators. Active terminators contain slightly more elaborate circuit to give cleaner bus signals. The general consensus seems to be that the usefulness of active termination increases when you have long buses and/or fast devices. If you ever have problems with your SCSI buses you might consider trying an active terminator. Try to borrow one first, they reputedly are quite expensive. Please keep in mind that terminators for differential and single-ended buses are not identical. You should not mix the two variants. OK, and now where should you install your terminators? This is by far the most misunderstood part of SCSI. And it is by far the simplest. The rule is: every single line on the SCSI bus has 2 (two) terminators, one at each end of the bus. So, two and not one or three or whatever. Do yourself a favor and stick to this rule. It will save you endless grief, because wrong termination has the potential to introduce highly mysterious bugs. (Note the potential here; the nastiest part is that it may or may not work.) A common pitfall is to have an internal (flat) cable in a machine and also an external cable attached to the controller. It seems almost everybody forgets to remove the terminators from the controller. The terminator must now be on the last external device, and not on the controller! In general, every reconfiguration of a SCSI bus must pay attention to this. Termination is to be done on a per-line basis. This means if you have both narrow and wide buses connected to the same host adapter, you need to enable termination on the higher 8 bits of the bus on the adapter (as well as the last devices on each bus, of course). What I did myself is remove all terminators from my SCSI devices and controllers. I own a couple of external terminators, for both the Centronics-type external cabling and for the internal flat cable connectors. This makes reconfiguration much easier. On modern devices, sometimes integrated terminators are used. These things are special purpose integrated circuits that can be dis/en-abled with a control pin. It is not necessary to physically remove them from a device. You may find them on newer host adapters, sometimes they are software configurable, using some sort of setup tool. Some will even auto-detect the cables attached to the connectors and automatically set up the termination as necessary. At any rate, consult your documentation! Terminator power The terminators discussed in the previous chapter need power to operate properly. On the SCSI bus, a line is dedicated to this purpose. So, simple huh? Not so. Each device can provide its own terminator power to the terminator sockets it has on-device. But if you have external terminators, or when the device supplying the terminator power to the SCSI bus line is switched off you are in trouble. The idea is that initiators (these are devices that initiate actions on the bus, a discussion follows) must supply terminator power. All SCSI devices are allowed (but not required) to supply terminator power. To allow for un-powered devices on a bus, the terminator power must be supplied to the bus via a diode. This prevents the backflow of current to un-powered devices. To prevent all kinds of nastiness, the terminator power is usually fused. As you can imagine, fuses might blow. This can, but does not have to, lead to a non functional bus. If multiple devices supply terminator power, a single blown fuse will not put you out of business. A single supplier with a blown fuse certainly will. Clever external terminators sometimes have a LED indication that shows whether terminator power is present. In newer designs auto-restoring fuses that 'reset' themselves after some time are sometimes used. Device addressing Because the SCSI bus is, ehh, a bus there must be a way to distinguish or address the different devices connected to it. This is done by means of the SCSI or target ID. Each device has a unique target ID. You can select the ID to which a device must respond using a set of jumpers, or a dip switch, or something similar. Some SCSI host adapters let you change the target ID from the boot menu. (Yet some others will not let you change the ID from 7.) Consult the documentation of your device for more information. Beware of multiple devices configured to use the same ID. Chaos normally reigns in this case. A pitfall is that one of the devices sharing the same ID sometimes even manages to answer to I/O requests! For an 8 bit bus, a maximum of 8 targets is possible. The maximum is 8 because the selection is done bitwise using the 8 data lines on the bus. For wide buses this increases to the number of data lines (usually 16). A narrow SCSI device can not communicate with a SCSI device with a target ID larger than 7. This means it is generally not a good idea to move your SCSI host adapter's target ID to something higher than 7 (or your CD-ROM will stop working). The higher the SCSI target ID, the higher the priority the devices has. When it comes to arbitration between devices that want to use the bus at the same time, the device that has the highest SCSI ID will win. This also means that the SCSI host adapter usually uses target ID 7. Note however that the lower 8 IDs have higher priorities than the higher 8 IDs on a wide-SCSI bus. Thus, the order of target IDs is: [7 6 .. 1 0 15 14 .. 9 8] on a wide-SCSI system. (If you you are wondering why the lower 8 have higher priority, read the previous paragraph for a hint.) For a further subdivision, the standard allows for Logical Units or LUNs for short. A single target ID may have multiple LUNs. For example, a tape device including a tape changer may have LUN 0 for the tape device itself, and LUN 1 for the tape changer. In this way, the host system can address each of the functional units of the tape changer as desired. Bus layout SCSI buses are linear. So, not shaped like Y-junctions, star topologies, rings, cobwebs or whatever else people might want to invent. One of the most common mistakes is for people with wide-SCSI host adapters to connect devices on all three connecters (external connector, internal wide connector, internal narrow connector). Don't do that. It may appear to work if you are really lucky, but I can almost guarantee that your system will stop functioning at the most unfortunate moment (this is also known as Murphy's law). You might notice that the terminator issue discussed earlier becomes rather hairy if your bus is not linear. Also, if you have more connectors than devices on your internal SCSI cable, make sure you attach devices on connectors on both ends instead of using the connectors in the middle and let one or both ends dangle. This will screw up the termination of the bus. The electrical characteristics, its noise margins and ultimately the reliability of it all are tightly related to linear bus rule. Stick to the linear bus rule! Using SCSI with FreeBSD About translations, BIOSes and magic... As stated before, you should first make sure that you have a electrically sound bus. When you want to use a SCSI disk on your PC as boot disk, you must aware of some quirks related to PC BIOSes. The PC BIOS in its first incarnation used a low level physical interface to the hard disk. So, you had to tell the BIOS (using a setup tool or a BIOS built-in setup) how your disk physically looked like. This involved stating number of heads, number of cylinders, number of sectors per track, obscure things like precompensation and reduced write current cylinder etc. One might be inclined to think that since SCSI disks are smart you can forget about this. Alas, the arcane setup issue is still present today. The system BIOS needs to know how to access your SCSI disk with the head/cyl/sector method in order to load the FreeBSD kernel during boot. The SCSI host adapter or SCSI controller you have put in your AT/EISA/PCI/whatever bus to connect your disk therefore has its own on-board BIOS. During system startup, the SCSI BIOS takes over the hard disk interface routines from the system BIOS. To fool the system BIOS, the system setup is normally set to No hard disk present. Obvious, isn't it? The SCSI BIOS itself presents to the system a so called translated drive. This means that a fake drive table is constructed that allows the PC to boot the drive. This translation is often (but not always) done using a pseudo drive with 64 heads and 32 sectors per track. By varying the number of cylinders, the SCSI BIOS adapts to the actual drive size. It is useful to note that 32 * 64 / 2 = the size of your drive in megabytes. The division by 2 is to get from disk blocks that are normally 512 bytes in size to Kbytes. Right. All is well now?! No, it is not. The system BIOS has another quirk you might run into. The number of cylinders of a bootable hard disk cannot be greater than 1024. Using the translation above, this is a show-stopper for disks greater than 1 GB. With disk capacities going up all the time this is causing problems. Fortunately, the solution is simple: just use another translation, e.g. with 128 heads instead of 32. In most cases new SCSI BIOS versions are available to upgrade older SCSI host adapters. Some newer adapters have an option, in the form of a jumper or software setup selection, to switch the translation the SCSI BIOS uses. It is very important that all operating systems on the disk use the same translation to get the right idea about where to find the relevant partitions. So, when installing FreeBSD you must answer any questions about heads/cylinders etc using the translated values your host adapter uses. Failing to observe the translation issue might lead to un-bootable systems or operating systems overwriting each others partitions. Using fdisk you should be able to see all partitions. You might have heard some talk of lying devices? Older FreeBSD kernels used to report the geometry of SCSI disks when booting. An example from one of my systems: aha0 targ 0 lun 0: <MICROP 1588-15MB1057404HSP4> sd0: 636MB (1303250 total sec), 1632 cyl, 15 head, 53 sec, bytes/sec 512 Newer kernels usually do not report this information. e.g. (bt0:0:0): "SEAGATE ST41651 7574" type 0 fixed SCSI 2 sd0(bt0:0:0): Direct-Access 1350MB (2766300 512 byte sectors) Why has this changed? This info is retrieved from the SCSI disk itself. Newer disks often use a technique called zone bit recording. The idea is that on the outer cylinders of the drive there is more space so more sectors per track can be put on them. This results in disks that have more tracks on outer cylinders than on the inner cylinders and, last but not least, have more capacity. You can imagine that the value reported by the drive when inquiring about the geometry now becomes suspect at best, and nearly always misleading. When asked for a geometry , it is nearly always better to supply the geometry used by the BIOS, or if the BIOS is never going to know about this disk, (e.g. it is not a booting disk) to supply a fictitious geometry that is convenient. SCSI subsystem design FreeBSD uses a layered SCSI subsystem. For each different controller card a device driver is written. This driver knows all the intimate details about the hardware it controls. The driver has a interface to the upper layers of the SCSI subsystem through which it receives its commands and reports back any status. On top of the card drivers there are a number of more generic drivers for a class of devices. More specific: a driver for tape devices (abbreviation: st), magnetic disks (sd), CD-ROMs (cd) etc. In case you are wondering where you can find this stuff, it all lives in /sys/scsi. See the man pages in section 4 for more details. The multi level design allows a decoupling of low-level bit banging and more high level stuff. Adding support for another piece of hardware is a much more manageable problem. Kernel configuration Dependent on your hardware, the kernel configuration file must contain one or more lines describing your host adapter(s). This includes I/O addresses, interrupts etc. Consult the man page for your adapter driver to get more info. Apart from that, check out /sys/i386/conf/LINT for an overview of a kernel config file. LINT contains every possible option you can dream of. It does not imply LINT will actually get you to a working kernel at all. Although it is probably stating the obvious: the kernel config file should reflect your actual hardware setup. So, interrupts, I/O addresses etc must match the kernel config file. During system boot messages will be displayed to indicate whether the configured hardware was actually found. Note that most of the EISA/PCI drivers (namely ahb, ahc, ncr and amd will automatically obtain the correct parameters from the host adapters themselves at boot time; thus, you just need to write, for instance, controller ahc0. An example loosely based on the FreeBSD 2.2.5-Release kernel config file LINT with some added comments (between []): # SCSI host adapters: `aha', `ahb', `aic', `bt', `nca' # # aha: Adaptec 154x # ahb: Adaptec 174x # ahc: Adaptec 274x/284x/294x # aic: Adaptec 152x and sound cards using the Adaptec AIC-6360 (slow!) # amd: AMD 53c974 based SCSI cards (e.g., Tekram DC-390 and 390T) # bt: Most Buslogic controllers # nca: ProAudioSpectrum cards using the NCR 5380 or Trantor T130 # ncr: NCR/Symbios 53c810/815/825/875 etc based SCSI cards # uha: UltraStore 14F and 34F # sea: Seagate ST01/02 8 bit controller (slow!) # wds: Western Digital WD7000 controller (no scatter/gather!). # [For an Adaptec AHA274x/284x/294x/394x etc controller] controller ahc0 [For an NCR/Symbios 53c875 based controller] controller ncr0 [For an Ultrastor adapter] controller uha0 at isa? port "IO_UHA0" bio irq ? drq 5 vector uhaintr # Map SCSI buses to specific SCSI adapters controller scbus0 at ahc0 controller scbus2 at ncr0 controller scbus1 at uha0 # The actual SCSI devices disk sd0 at scbus0 target 0 unit 0 [SCSI disk 0 is at scbus 0, LUN 0] disk sd1 at scbus0 target 1 [implicit LUN 0 if omitted] disk sd2 at scbus1 target 3 [SCSI disk on the uha0] disk sd3 at scbus2 target 4 [SCSI disk on the ncr0] tape st1 at scbus0 target 6 [SCSI tape at target 6] device cd0 at scbus? [the first ever CD-ROM found, no wiring] The example above tells the kernel to look for a ahc (Adaptec 274x) controller, then for an NCR/Symbios board, and so on. The lines following the controller specifications tell the kernel to configure specific devices but only attach them when they match the target ID and LUN specified on the corresponding bus. Wired down devices get first shot at the unit numbers so the first non wired down device, is allocated the unit number one greater than the highest wired down unit number for that kind of device. So, if you had a SCSI tape at target ID 2 it would be configured as st2, as the tape at target ID 6 is wired down to unit number 1. Wired down devices need not be found to get their unit number. The unit number for a wired down device is reserved for that device, even if it is turned off at boot time. This allows the device to be turned on and brought on-line at a later time, without rebooting. Notice that a device's unit number has no relationship with its target ID on the SCSI bus. Below is another example of a kernel config file as used by FreeBSD version < 2.0.5. The difference with the first example is that devices are not wired down. Wired down means that you specify which SCSI target belongs to which device. A kernel built to the config file below will attach the first SCSI disk it finds to sd0, the second disk to sd1 etc. If you ever removed or added a disk, all other devices of the same type (disk in this case) would 'move around'. This implies you have to change /etc/fstab each time. Although the old style still works, you are strongly recommended to use this new feature. It will save you a lot of grief whenever you shift your hardware around on the SCSI buses. So, when you re-use your old trusty config file after upgrading from a pre-FreeBSD2.0.5.R system check this out. [driver for Adaptec 174x] controller ahb0 at isa? bio irq 11 vector ahbintr [for Adaptec 154x] controller aha0 at isa? port "IO_AHA0" bio irq 11 drq 5 vector ahaintr [for Seagate ST01/02] controller sea0 at isa? bio irq 5 iomem 0xc8000 iosiz 0x2000 vector seaintr controller scbus0 device sd0 [support for 4 SCSI harddisks, sd0 up sd3] device st0 [support for 2 SCSI tapes] [for the CD-ROM] device cd0 #Only need one of these, the code dynamically grows Both examples support SCSI disks. If during boot more devices of a specific type (e.g. sd disks) are found than are configured in the booting kernel, the system will simply allocate more devices, incrementing the unit number starting at the last number wired down. If there are no wired down devices then counting starts at unit 0. Use man 4 scsi to check for the latest info on the SCSI subsystem. For more detailed info on host adapter drivers use eg man 4 ahc for info on the Adaptec 294x driver. Tuning your SCSI kernel setup Experience has shown that some devices are slow to respond to INQUIRY commands after a SCSI bus reset (which happens at boot time). An INQUIRY command is sent by the kernel on boot to see what kind of device (disk, tape, CD-ROM etc) is connected to a specific target ID. This process is called device probing by the way. To work around the 'slow response' problem, FreeBSD allows a tunable delay time before the SCSI devices are probed following a SCSI bus reset. You can set this delay time in your kernel configuration file using a line like: options SCSI_DELAY=15 #Be pessimistic about Joe SCSI device This line sets the delay time to 15 seconds. On my own system I had to use 3 seconds minimum to get my trusty old CD-ROM drive to be recognized. Start with a high value (say 30 seconds or so) when you have problems with device recognition. If this helps, tune it back until it just stays working. Rogue SCSI devices Although the SCSI standard tries to be complete and concise, it is a complex standard and implementing things correctly is no easy task. Some vendors do a better job then others. This is exactly where the rogue devices come into view. Rogues are devices that are recognized by the FreeBSD kernel as behaving slightly (...) non-standard. Rogue devices are reported by the kernel when booting. An example for two of my cartridge tape units: Feb 25 21:03:34 yedi /kernel: ahb0 targ 5 lun 0: <TANDBERG TDC 3600 -06:> Feb 25 21:03:34 yedi /kernel: st0: Tandberg tdc3600 is a known rogue Mar 29 21:16:37 yedi /kernel: aha0 targ 5 lun 0: <ARCHIVE VIPER 150 21247-005> Mar 29 21:16:37 yedi /kernel: st1: Archive Viper 150 is a known rogue For instance, there are devices that respond to all LUNs on a certain target ID, even if they are actually only one device. It is easy to see that the kernel might be fooled into believing that there are 8 LUNs at that particular target ID. The confusion this causes is left as an exercise to the reader. The SCSI subsystem of FreeBSD recognizes devices with bad habits by looking at the INQUIRY response they send when probed. Because the INQUIRY response also includes the version number of the device firmware, it is even possible that for different firmware versions different workarounds are used. See e.g. /sys/scsi/st.c and /sys/scsi/scsiconf.c for more info on how this is done. This scheme works fine, but keep in mind that it of course only works for devices that are known to be weird. If you are the first to connect your bogus Mumbletech SCSI CD-ROM you might be the one that has to define which workaround is needed. After you got your Mumbletech working, please send the required workaround to the FreeBSD development team for inclusion in the next release of FreeBSD. Other Mumbletech owners will be grateful to you. Multiple LUN devices In some cases you come across devices that use multiple logical units (LUNs) on a single SCSI ID. In most cases FreeBSD only probes devices for LUN 0. An example are so called bridge boards that connect 2 non-SCSI harddisks to a SCSI bus (e.g. an Emulex MD21 found in old Sun systems). This means that any devices with LUNs != 0 are not normally found during device probe on system boot. To work around this problem you must add an appropriate entry in /sys/scsi/scsiconf.c and rebuild your kernel. Look for a struct that is initialized like below: { T_DIRECT, T_FIXED, "MAXTOR", "XT-4170S", "B5A", "mx1", SC_ONE_LU } For you Mumbletech BRIDGE2000 that has more than one LUN, acts as a SCSI disk and has firmware revision 123 you would add something like: { T_DIRECT, T_FIXED, "MUMBLETECH", "BRIDGE2000", "123", "sd", SC_MORE_LUS } The kernel on boot scans the inquiry data it receives against the table and acts accordingly. See the source for more info. Tagged command queueing Modern SCSI devices, particularly magnetic disks, support what is called tagged command queuing (TCQ). In a nutshell, TCQ allows the device to have multiple I/O requests outstanding at the same time. Because the device is intelligent, it can optimise its operations (like head positioning) based on its own request queue. On SCSI devices like RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) arrays the TCQ function is indispensable to take advantage of the device's inherent parallelism. Each I/O request is uniquely identified by a tag (hence the name tagged command queuing) and this tag is used by FreeBSD to see which I/O in the device drivers queue is reported as complete by the device. It should be noted however that TCQ requires device driver support and that some devices implemented it not quite right in their firmware. This problem bit me once, and it leads to highly mysterious problems. In such cases, try to disable TCQ. Busmaster host adapters Most, but not all, SCSI host adapters are bus mastering controllers. This means that they can do I/O on their own without putting load onto the host CPU for data movement. This is of course an advantage for a multitasking operating system like FreeBSD. It must be noted however that there might be some rough edges. For instance an Adaptec 1542 controller can be set to use different transfer speeds on the host bus (ISA or AT in this case). The controller is settable to different rates because not all motherboards can handle the higher speeds. Problems like hangups, bad data etc might be the result of using a higher data transfer rate then your motherboard can stomach. The solution is of course obvious: switch to a lower data transfer rate and try if that works better. In the case of a Adaptec 1542, there is an option that can be put into the kernel config file to allow dynamic determination of the right, read: fastest feasible, transfer rate. This option is disabled by default: options "TUNE_1542" #dynamic tune of bus DMA speed Check the man pages for the host adapter that you use. Or better still, use the ultimate documentation (read: driver source). Tracking down problems The following list is an attempt to give a guideline for the most common SCSI problems and their solutions. It is by no means complete. Check for loose connectors and cables. Check and double check the location and number of your terminators. Check if your bus has at least one supplier of terminator power (especially with external terminators. Check if no double target IDs are used. Check if all devices to be used are powered up. Make a minimal bus config with as little devices as possible. If possible, configure your host adapter to use slow bus speeds. Disable tagged command queuing to make things as simple as possible (for a NCR hostadapter based system see man ncrcontrol) If you can compile a kernel, make one with the SCSIDEBUG option, and try accessing the device with debugging turned on for that device. If your device does not even probe at startup, you may have to define the address of the device that is failing, and the desired debug level in /sys/scsi/scsidebug.h. If it probes but just does not work, you can use the scsi8 command to dynamically set a debug level to it in a running kernel (if SCSIDEBUG is defined). This will give you copious debugging output with which to confuse the gurus. see man 4 scsi for more exact information. Also look at man 8 scsi. Further reading If you intend to do some serious SCSI hacking, you might want to have the official standard at hand: Approved American National Standards can be purchased from ANSI at
13th Floor 11 West 42nd Street New York NY 10036 Sales Dept: (212) 642-4900
You can also buy many ANSI standards and most committee draft documents from Global Engineering Documents,
15 Inverness Way East Englewood CO, 80112-5704 Phone: (800) 854-7179 Outside USA and Canada: (303) 792-2181 Fax: (303) 792- 2192
Many X3T10 draft documents are available electronically on the SCSI BBS (719-574-0424) and on the ncrinfo.ncr.com anonymous ftp site. Latest X3T10 committee documents are: AT Attachment (ATA or IDE) [X3.221-1994] (Approved) ATA Extensions (ATA-2) [X3T10/948D Rev 2i] Enhanced Small Device Interface (ESDI) [X3.170-1990/X3.170a-1991] (Approved) Small Computer System Interface — 2 (SCSI-2) [X3.131-1994] (Approved) SCSI-2 Common Access Method Transport and SCSI Interface Module (CAM) [X3T10/792D Rev 11] Other publications that might provide you with additional information are: SCSI: Understanding the Small Computer System Interface, written by NCR Corporation. Available from: Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 07632 Phone: (201) 767-5937 ISBN 0-13-796855-8 Basics of SCSI, a SCSI tutorial written by Ancot Corporation Contact Ancot for availability information at: Phone: (415) 322-5322 Fax: (415) 322-0455 SCSI Interconnection Guide Book, an AMP publication (dated 4/93, Catalog 65237) that lists the various SCSI connectors and suggests cabling schemes. Available from AMP at (800) 522-6752 or (717) 564-0100 Fast Track to SCSI, A Product Guide written by Fujitsu. Available from: Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 07632 Phone: (201) 767-5937 ISBN 0-13-307000-X The SCSI Bench Reference, The SCSI Encyclopedia, and the SCSI Tutor, ENDL Publications, 14426 Black Walnut Court, Saratoga CA, 95070 Phone: (408) 867-6642 Zadian SCSI Navigator (quick ref. book) and Discover the Power of SCSI (First book along with a one-hour video and tutorial book), Zadian Software, Suite 214, 1210 S. Bascom Ave., San Jose, CA 92128, (408) 293-0800 On Usenet the newsgroups comp.periphs.scsi and comp.periphs are noteworthy places to look for more info. You can also find the SCSI-Faq there, which is posted periodically. Most major SCSI device and host adapter suppliers operate ftp sites and/or BBS systems. They may be valuable sources of information about the devices you own. * Disk/tape controllers * SCSI * IDE * Floppy Hard drives SCSI hard drives Contributed by &a.asami;.17 February 1998. As mentioned in the section, virtually all SCSI hard drives sold today are SCSI-2 compliant and thus will work fine as long as you connect them to a supported SCSI host adapter. Most problems people encounter are either due to badly designed cabling (cable too long, star topology, etc.), insufficient termination, or defective parts. Please refer to the section first if your SCSI hard drive is not working. However, there are a couple of things you may want to take into account before you purchase SCSI hard drives for your system. Rotational speed Rotational speeds of SCSI drives sold today range from around 4,500RPM to 10,000RPM. Most of them are either 5,400RPM or 7,200RPM. Even though the 7,200RPM drives can generally transfer data faster, they run considerably hotter than their 5,400RPM counterparts. A large fraction of today's disk drive malfunctions are heat-related. If you do not have very good cooling in your PC case, you may want to stick with 5,400RPM or slower drives. Note that newer drives, with higher areal recording densities, can deliver much more bits per rotation than older ones. Today's top-of-line 5,400RPM drives can sustain a throughput comparable to 7,200RPM drives of one or two model generations ago. The number to find on the spec sheet for bandwidth is internal data (or transfer) rate. It is usually in megabits/sec so divide it by 8 and you'll get the rough approximation of how much megabytes/sec you can get out of the drive. (If you are a speed maniac and want a 10,000RPM drive for your cute little peecee, be my guest; however, those drives become extremely hot. Don't even think about it if you don't have a fan blowing air directly at the drive or a properly ventilated disk enclosure.) Obviously, the latest 10,000RPM drives and 7,200RPM drives can deliver more data than the latest 5,400RPM drives, so if absolute bandwidth is the necessity for your applications, you have little choice but to get the faster drives. Also, if you need low latency, faster drives are better; not only do they usually have lower average seek times, but also the rotational delay is one place where slow-spinning drives can never beat a faster one. (The average rotational latency is half the time it takes to rotate the drive once; thus, it's 3 milliseconds for 10,000RPM drives, 4.2ms for 7,200RPM drives and 5.6ms for 5,400RPM drives.) Latency is seek time plus rotational delay. Make sure you understand whether you need low latency or more accesses per second, though; in the latter case (e.g., news servers), it may not be optimal to purchase one big fast drive. You can achieve similar or even better results by using the ccd (concatenated disk) driver to create a striped disk array out of multiple slower drives for comparable overall cost. Make sure you have adequate air flow around the drive, especially if you are going to use a fast-spinning drive. You generally need at least 1/2" (1.25cm) of spacing above and below a drive. Understand how the air flows through your PC case. Most cases have the power supply suck the air out of the back. See where the air flows in, and put the drive where it will have the largest volume of cool air flowing around it. You may need to seal some unwanted holes or add a new fan for effective cooling. Another consideration is noise. Many 7,200 or faster drives generate a high-pitched whine which is quite unpleasant to most people. That, plus the extra fans often required for cooling, may make 7,200 or faster drives unsuitable for some office and home environments. Form factor Most SCSI drives sold today are of 3.5" form factor. They come in two different heights; 1.6" (half-height) or 1" (low-profile). The half-height drive is the same height as a CD-ROM drive. However, don't forget the spacing rule mentioned in the previous section. If you have three standard 3.5" drive bays, you will not be able to put three half-height drives in there (without frying them, that is). Interface The majority of SCSI hard drives sold today are Ultra or Ultra-wide SCSI. The maximum bandwidth of Ultra SCSI is 20MB/sec, and Ultra-wide SCSI is 40MB/sec. There is no difference in max cable length between Ultra and Ultra-wide; however, the more devices you have on the same bus, the sooner you will start having bus integrity problems. Unless you have a well-designed disk enclosure, it is not easy to make more than 5 or 6 Ultra SCSI drives work on a single bus. On the other hand, if you need to connect many drives, going for Fast-wide SCSI may not be a bad idea. That will have the same max bandwidth as Ultra (narrow) SCSI, while electronically it's much easier to get it right. My advice would be: if you want to connect many disks, get wide SCSI drives; they usually cost a little more but it may save you down the road. (Besides, if you can't afford the cost difference, you shouldn't be building a disk array.) There are two variant of wide SCSI drives; 68-pin and 80-pin SCA (Single Connector Attach). The SCA drives don't have a separate 4-pin power connector, and also read the SCSI ID settings through the 80-pin connector. If you are really serious about building a large storage system, get SCA drives and a good SCA enclosure (dual power supply with at least one extra fan). They are more electronically sound than 68-pin counterparts because there is no stub of the SCSI bus inside the disk canister as in arrays built from 68-pin drives. They are easier to install too (you just need to screw the drive in the canister, instead of trying to squeeze in your fingers in a tight place to hook up all the little cables (like the SCSI ID and disk activity LED lines). * IDE hard drives Tape drives Contributed by &a.jmb;.2 July 1996. General tape access commands mt1 provides generic access to the tape drives. Some of the more common commands are rewind, erase, and status. See the mt1 manual page for a detailed description. Controller Interfaces There are several different interfaces that support tape drives. The interfaces are SCSI, IDE, Floppy and Parallel Port. A wide variety of tape drives are available for these interfaces. Controllers are discussed in SCSI drives The st4 driver provides support for 8mm (Exabyte), 4mm (DAT: Digital Audio Tape), QIC (Quarter-Inch Cartridge), DLT (Digital Linear Tape), QIC Minicartridge and 9-track (remember the big reels that you see spinning in Hollywood computer rooms) tape drives. See the st4 manual page for a detailed description. The drives listed below are currently being used by members of the FreeBSD community. They are not the only drives that will work with FreeBSD. They just happen to be the ones that we use. 4mm (DAT: Digital Audio Tape) 8mm (Exabyte) QIC (Quarter-Inch Cartridge) DLT (Digital Linear Tape) Mini-Cartridge Autoloaders/Changers * IDE drives Floppy drives * Parallel port drives Detailed Information Archive Anaconda 2750 The boot message identifier for this drive is ARCHIVE ANCDA 2750 28077 -003 type 1 removable SCSI 2 This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 1.35GB when using QIC-1350 tapes. This drive will read and write QIC-150 (DC6150), QIC-250 (DC6250), and QIC-525 (DC6525) tapes as well. Data transfer rate is 350kB/s using dump8. Rates of 530kB/s have been reported when using Production of this drive has been discontinued. The SCSI bus connector on this tape drive is reversed from that on most other SCSI devices. Make sure that you have enough SCSI cable to twist the cable one-half turn before and after the Archive Anaconda tape drive, or turn your other SCSI devices upside-down. Two kernel code changes are required to use this drive. This drive will not work as delivered. If you have a SCSI-2 controller, short jumper 6. Otherwise, the drive behaves are a SCSI-1 device. When operating as a SCSI-1 device, this drive, locks the SCSI bus during some tape operations, including: fsf, rewind, and rewoffl. If you are using the NCR SCSI controllers, patch the file /usr/src/sys/pci/ncr.c (as shown below). Build and install a new kernel. *** 4831,4835 **** }; ! if (np->latetime>4) { /* ** Although we tried to wake it up, --- 4831,4836 ---- }; ! if (np->latetime>1200) { /* ** Although we tried to wake it up, Reported by: &a.jmb; Archive Python The boot message identifier for this drive is ARCHIVE Python 28454-XXX4ASB type 1 removable SCSI 2 density code 0x8c, 512-byte blocks This is a DDS-1 tape drive. Native capacity is 2.5GB on 90m tapes. Data transfer rate is XXX. This drive was repackaged by Sun Microsystems as model 411. Reported by: Bob Bishop rb@gid.co.uk Archive Viper 60 The boot message identifier for this drive is ARCHIVE VIPER 60 21116 -007 type 1 removable SCSI 1 This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 60MB. Data transfer rate is XXX. Production of this drive has been discontinued. Reported by: Philippe Regnauld regnauld@hsc.fr Archive Viper 150 The boot message identifier for this drive is ARCHIVE VIPER 150 21531 -004 Archive Viper 150 is a known rogue type 1 removable SCSI 1. A multitude of firmware revisions exist for this drive. Your drive may report different numbers (e.g 21247 -005. This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 150/250MB. Both 150MB (DC6150) and 250MB (DC6250) tapes have the recording format. The 250MB tapes are approximately 67% longer than the 150MB tapes. This drive can read 120MB tapes as well. It can not write 120MB tapes. Data transfer rate is 100kB/s This drive reads and writes DC6150 (150MB) and DC6250 (250MB) tapes. This drives quirks are known and pre-compiled into the scsi tape device driver (st4). Under FreeBSD 2.2-current, use mt blocksize 512 to set the blocksize. (The particular drive had firmware revision 21247 -005. Other firmware revisions may behave differently) Previous versions of FreeBSD did not have this problem. Production of this drive has been discontinued. Reported by: Pedro A M Vazquez vazquez@IQM.Unicamp.BR Mike Smith msmith@atrad.adelaide.edu.au Archive Viper 2525 The boot message identifier for this drive is ARCHIVE VIPER 2525 25462 -011 type 1 removable SCSI 1 This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 525MB. Data transfer rate is 180kB/s at 90 inches/sec. The drive reads QIC-525, QIC-150, QIC-120 and QIC-24 tapes. Writes QIC-525, QIC-150, and QIC-120. Firmware revisions prior to 25462 -011 are bug ridden and will not function properly. Production of this drive has been discontinued. Conner 420R The boot message identifier for this drive is Conner tape. This is a floppy controller, minicartridge tape drive. Native capacity is XXXX Data transfer rate is XXX The drive uses QIC-80 tape cartridges. Reported by: Mark Hannon mark@seeware.DIALix.oz.au Conner CTMS 3200 The boot message identifier for this drive is CONNER CTMS 3200 7.00 type 1 removable SCSI 2. This is a minicartridge tape drive. Native capacity is XXXX Data transfer rate is XXX The drive uses QIC-3080 tape cartridges. Reported by: Thomas S. Traylor tst@titan.cs.mci.com <ulink URL="http://www.digital.com/info/Customer-Update/931206004.txt.html">DEC TZ87</ulink> The boot message identifier for this drive is DEC TZ87 (C) DEC 9206 type 1 removable SCSI 2 density code 0x19 This is a DLT tape drive. Native capacity is 10GB. This drive supports hardware data compression. Data transfer rate is 1.2MB/s. This drive is identical to the Quantum DLT2000. The drive firmware can be set to emulate several well-known drives, including an Exabyte 8mm drive. Reported by: &a.wilko; <ulink URL="http://www.Exabyte.COM:80/Products/Minicartridge/2501/Rfeatures.html">Exabyte EXB-2501</ulink> The boot message identifier for this drive is EXABYTE EXB-2501 This is a mini-cartridge tape drive. Native capacity is 1GB when using MC3000XL minicartridges. Data transfer rate is XXX This drive can read and write DC2300 (550MB), DC2750 (750MB), MC3000 (750MB), and MC3000XL (1GB) minicartridges. WARNING: This drive does not meet the SCSI-2 specifications. The drive locks up completely in response to a SCSI MODE_SELECT command unless there is a formatted tape in the drive. Before using this drive, set the tape blocksize with &prompt.root; mt -f /dev/st0ctl.0 blocksize 1024 Before using a minicartridge for the first time, the minicartridge must be formated. FreeBSD 2.1.0-RELEASE and earlier: &prompt.root; /sbin/scsi -f /dev/rst0.ctl -s 600 -c "4 0 0 0 0 0" (Alternatively, fetch a copy of the scsiformat shell script from FreeBSD 2.1.5/2.2.) FreeBSD 2.1.5 and later: &prompt.root; /sbin/scsiformat -q -w /dev/rst0.ctl Right now, this drive cannot really be recommended for FreeBSD. Reported by: Bob Beaulieu ez@eztravel.com Exabyte EXB-8200 The boot message identifier for this drive is EXABYTE EXB-8200 252X type 1 removable SCSI 1 This is an 8mm tape drive. Native capacity is 2.3GB. Data transfer rate is 270kB/s. This drive is fairly slow in responding to the SCSI bus during boot. A custom kernel may be required (set SCSI_DELAY to 10 seconds). There are a large number of firmware configurations for this drive, some have been customized to a particular vendor's hardware. The firmware can be changed via EPROM replacement. Production of this drive has been discontinued. Reported by: Mike Smith msmith@atrad.adelaide.edu.au Exabyte EXB-8500 The boot message identifier for this drive is EXABYTE EXB-8500-85Qanx0 0415 type 1 removable SCSI 2 This is an 8mm tape drive. Native capacity is 5GB. Data transfer rate is 300kB/s. Reported by: Greg Lehey grog@lemis.de <ulink URL="http://www.Exabyte.COM:80/Products/8mm/8505XL/Rfeatures.html">Exabyte EXB-8505</ulink> The boot message identifier for this drive is EXABYTE EXB-85058SQANXR1 05B0 type 1 removable SCSI 2 This is an 8mm tape drive which supports compression, and is upward compatible with the EXB-5200 and EXB-8500. Native capacity is 5GB. The drive supports hardware data compression. Data transfer rate is 300kB/s. Reported by: Glen Foster gfoster@gfoster.com Hewlett-Packard HP C1533A The boot message identifier for this drive is HP C1533A 9503 type 1 removable SCSI 2. This is a DDS-2 tape drive. DDS-2 means hardware data compression and narrower tracks for increased data capacity. Native capacity is 4GB when using 120m tapes. This drive supports hardware data compression. Data transfer rate is 510kB/s. This drive is used in Hewlett-Packard's SureStore 6000eU and 6000i tape drives and C1533A DDS-2 DAT drive. The drive has a block of 8 dip switches. The proper settings for FreeBSD are: 1 ON; 2 ON; 3 OFF; 4 ON; 5 ON; 6 ON; 7 ON; 8 ON. switch 1 switch 2 Result On On Compression enabled at power-on, with host control On Off Compression enabled at power-on, no host control Off On Compression disabled at power-on, with host control Off Off Compression disabled at power-on, no host control Switch 3 controls MRS (Media Recognition System). MRS tapes have stripes on the transparent leader. These identify the tape as DDS (Digital Data Storage) grade media. Tapes that do not have the stripes will be treated as write-protected. Switch 3 OFF enables MRS. Switch 3 ON disables MRS. See HP SureStore Tape Products and Hewlett-Packard Disk and Tape Technical Information for more information on configuring this drive. Warning: Quality control on these drives varies greatly. One FreeBSD core-team member has returned 2 of these drives. Neither lasted more than 5 months. Reported by: &a.se; Hewlett-Packard HP 1534A The boot message identifier for this drive is HP HP35470A T503 type 1 removable SCSI 2 Sequential-Access density code 0x13, variable blocks. This is a DDS-1 tape drive. DDS-1 is the original DAT tape format. Native capacity is 2GB when using 90m tapes. Data transfer rate is 183kB/s. The same mechanism is used in Hewlett-Packard's SureStore 2000i tape drive, C35470A DDS format DAT drive, C1534A DDS format DAT drive and HP C1536A DDS format DAT drive. The HP C1534A DDS format DAT drive has two indicator lights, one green and one amber. The green one indicates tape action: slow flash during load, steady when loaded, fast flash during read/write operations. The amber one indicates warnings: slow flash when cleaning is required or tape is nearing the end of its useful life, steady indicates an hard fault. (factory service required?) Reported by Gary Crutcher gcrutchr@nightflight.com Hewlett-Packard HP C1553A Autoloading DDS2 The boot message identifier for this drive is "". This is a DDS-2 tape drive with a tape changer. DDS-2 means hardware data compression and narrower tracks for increased data capacity. Native capacity is 24GB when using 120m tapes. This drive supports hardware data compression. Data transfer rate is 510kB/s (native). This drive is used in Hewlett-Packard's SureStore 12000e tape drive. The drive has two selectors on the rear panel. The selector closer to the fan is SCSI id. The other selector should be set to 7. There are four internal switches. These should be set: 1 ON; 2 ON; 3 ON; 4 OFF. At present the kernel drivers do not automatically change tapes at the end of a volume. This shell script can be used to change tapes: #!/bin/sh PATH="/sbin:/usr/sbin:/bin:/usr/bin"; export PATH usage() { echo "Usage: dds_changer [123456ne] raw-device-name echo "1..6 = Select cartridge" echo "next cartridge" echo "eject magazine" exit 2 } if [ $# -ne 2 ] ; then usage fi cdb3=0 cdb4=0 cdb5=0 case $1 in [123456]) cdb3=$1 cdb4=1 ;; n) ;; e) cdb5=0x80 ;; ?) usage ;; esac scsi -f $2 -s 100 -c "1b 0 0 $cdb3 $cdb4 $cdb5" Hewlett-Packard HP 35450A The boot message identifier for this drive is HP HP35450A -A C620 type 1 removable SCSI 2 Sequential-Access density code 0x13 This is a DDS-1 tape drive. DDS-1 is the original DAT tape format. Native capacity is 1.2GB. Data transfer rate is 160kB/s. Reported by: mark thompson mark.a.thompson@pobox.com Hewlett-Packard HP 35470A The boot message identifier for this drive is HP HP35470A 9 09 type 1 removable SCSI 2 This is a DDS-1 tape drive. DDS-1 is the original DAT tape format. Native capacity is 2GB when using 90m tapes. Data transfer rate is 183kB/s. The same mechanism is used in Hewlett-Packard's SureStore 2000i tape drive, C35470A DDS format DAT drive, C1534A DDS format DAT drive, and HP C1536A DDS format DAT drive. Warning: Quality control on these drives varies greatly. One FreeBSD core-team member has returned 5 of these drives. None lasted more than 9 months. Reported by: David Dawes dawes@rf900.physics.usyd.edu.au (9 09) Hewlett-Packard HP 35480A The boot message identifier for this drive is HP HP35480A 1009 type 1 removable SCSI 2 Sequential-Access density code 0x13. This is a DDS-DC tape drive. DDS-DC is DDS-1 with hardware data compression. DDS-1 is the original DAT tape format. Native capacity is 2GB when using 90m tapes. It cannot handle 120m tapes. This drive supports hardware data compression. Please refer to the section on for the proper switch settings. Data transfer rate is 183kB/s. This drive is used in Hewlett-Packard's SureStore 5000eU and 5000i tape drives and C35480A DDS format DAT drive.. This drive will occasionally hang during a tape eject operation (mt offline). Pressing the front panel button will eject the tape and bring the tape drive back to life. WARNING: HP 35480-03110 only. On at least two occasions this tape drive when used with FreeBSD 2.1.0, an IBM Server 320 and an 2940W SCSI controller resulted in all SCSI disk partitions being lost. The problem has not be analyzed or resolved at this time. <ulink URL="http://www.sel.sony.com/SEL/ccpg/storage/tape/t5000.html">Sony SDT-5000</ulink> There are at least two significantly different models: one is a DDS-1 and the other DDS-2. The DDS-1 version is SDT-5000 3.02. The DDS-2 version is SONY SDT-5000 327M. The DDS-2 version has a 1MB cache. This cache is able to keep the tape streaming in almost any circumstances. The boot message identifier for this drive is SONY SDT-5000 3.02 type 1 removable SCSI 2 Sequential-Access density code 0x13 Native capacity is 4GB when using 120m tapes. This drive supports hardware data compression. Data transfer rate is depends upon the model or the drive. The rate is 630kB/s for the SONY SDT-5000 327M while compressing the data. For the SONY SDT-5000 3.02, the data transfer rate is 225kB/s. In order to get this drive to stream, set the blocksize to 512 bytes (mt blocksize 512) reported by Kenneth Merry ken@ulc199.residence.gatech.edu SONY SDT-5000 327M information reported by Charles Henrich henrich@msu.edu Reported by: &a.jmz; Tandberg TDC 3600 The boot message identifier for this drive is TANDBERG TDC 3600 =08: type 1 removable SCSI 2 This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 150/250MB. This drive has quirks which are known and work around code is present in the scsi tape device driver (st4). Upgrading the firmware to XXX version will fix the quirks and provide SCSI 2 capabilities. Data transfer rate is 80kB/s. IBM and Emerald units will not work. Replacing the firmware EPROM of these units will solve the problem. Reported by: Michael Smith msmith@atrad.adelaide.edu.au Tandberg TDC 3620 This is very similar to the drive. Reported by: &a.joerg; Tandberg TDC 4222 The boot message identifier for this drive is TANDBERG TDC 4222 =07 type 1 removable SCSI 2 This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 2.5GB. The drive will read all cartridges from the 60 MB (DC600A) upwards, and write 150 MB (DC6150) upwards. Hardware compression is optionally supported for the 2.5 GB cartridges. This drives quirks are known and pre-compiled into the scsi tape device driver (st4) beginning with FreeBSD 2.2-current. For previous versions of FreeBSD, use mt to read one block from the tape, rewind the tape, and then execute the backup program (mt fsr 1; mt rewind; dump ...) Data transfer rate is 600kB/s (vendor claim with compression), 350 KB/s can even be reached in start/stop mode. The rate decreases for smaller cartridges. Reported by: &a.joerg; Wangtek 5525ES The boot message identifier for this drive is WANGTEK 5525ES SCSI REV7 3R1 type 1 removable SCSI 1 density code 0x11, 1024-byte blocks This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 525MB. Data transfer rate is 180kB/s. The drive reads 60, 120, 150, and 525MB tapes. The drive will not write 60MB (DC600 cartridge) tapes. In order to overwrite 120 and 150 tapes reliably, first erase (mt erase) the tape. 120 and 150 tapes used a wider track (fewer tracks per tape) than 525MB tapes. The extra width of the previous tracks is not overwritten, as a result the new data lies in a band surrounded on both sides by the previous data unless the tape have been erased. This drives quirks are known and pre-compiled into the scsi tape device driver (st4). Other firmware revisions that are known to work are: M75D Reported by: Marc van Kempen marc@bowtie.nl REV73R1 Andrew Gordon Andrew.Gordon@net-tel.co.uk M75D Wangtek 6200 The boot message identifier for this drive is WANGTEK 6200-HS 4B18 type 1 removable SCSI 2 Sequential-Access density code 0x13 This is a DDS-1 tape drive. Native capacity is 2GB using 90m tapes. Data transfer rate is 150kB/s. Reported by: Tony Kimball alk@Think.COM * Problem drives CD-ROM drives Contributed by &a.obrien;.23 November 1997. As mentioned in Generally speaking those in The FreeBSD Project prefer SCSI CDROM drives over IDE CDROM drives. However not all SCSI CDROM drives are equal. Some feel the quality of some SCSI CDROM drives have been deteriorating to that of IDE CDROM drives. Toshiba used to be the favored stand-by, but many on the SCSI mailing list have found displeasure with the 12x speed XM-5701TA as its volume (when playing audio CDROMs) is not controllable by the various audio player software. Another area where SCSI CDROM manufacturers are cutting corners is adhearance to the . Many SCSI CDROMs will respond to for its target address. Known violators include the 6x Teac CD-56S 1.0D. * Other * Adding and reconfiguring disks Tapes and backups * What about backups to floppies? Tape Media 4mm (DDS: Digital Data Storage) 4mm tapes are replacing QIC as the workstation backup media of choice. This trend accelerated greatly when Conner purchased Archive, a leading manufacturer of QIC drives, and then stopped production of QIC drives. 4mm drives are small and quiet but do not have the reputation for reliability that is enjoyed by 8mm drives. The cartridges are less expensive and smaller (3 x 2 x 0.5 inches, 76 x 51 x 12 mm) than 8mm cartridges. 4mm, like 8mm, has comparatively short head life for the same reason, both use helical scan. Data thruput on these drives starts ~150kB/s, peaking at ~500kB/s. Data capacity starts at 1.3 GB and ends at 2.0 GB. Hardware compression, available with most of these drives, approximately doubles the capacity. Multi-drive tape library units can have 6 drives in a single cabinet with automatic tape changing. Library capacities reach 240 GB. 4mm drives, like 8mm drives, use helical-scan. All the benefits and drawbacks of helical-scan apply to both 4mm and 8mm drives. Tapes should be retired from use after 2,000 passes or 100 full backups. 8mm (Exabyte) 8mm tapes are the most common SCSI tape drives; they are the best choice of exchanging tapes. Nearly every site has an exabyte 2 GB 8mm tape drive. 8mm drives are reliable, convenient and quiet. Cartridges are inexpensive and small (4.8 x 3.3 x 0.6 inches; 122 x 84 x 15 mm). One downside of 8mm tape is relatively short head and tape life due to the high rate of relative motion of the tape across the heads. Data thruput ranges from ~250kB/s to ~500kB/s. Data sizes start at 300 MB and go up to 7 GB. Hardware compression, available with most of these drives, approximately doubles the capacity. These drives are available as single units or multi-drive tape libraries with 6 drives and 120 tapes in a single cabinet. Tapes are changed automatically by the unit. Library capacities reach 840+ GB. Data is recorded onto the tape using helical-scan, the heads are positioned at an angle to the media (approximately 6 degrees). The tape wraps around 270 degrees of the spool that holds the heads. The spool spins while the tape slides over the spool. The result is a high density of data and closely packed tracks that angle across the tape from one edge to the other. QIC QIC-150 tapes and drives are, perhaps, the most common tape drive and media around. QIC tape drives are the least expensive serious backup drives. The downside is the cost of media. QIC tapes are expensive compared to 8mm or 4mm tapes, up to 5 times the price per GB data storage. But, if your needs can be satisfied with a half-dozen tapes, QIC may be the correct choice. QIC is the most common tape drive. Every site has a QIC drive of some density or another. Therein lies the rub, QIC has a large number of densities on physically similar (sometimes identical) tapes. QIC drives are not quiet. These drives audibly seek before they begin to record data and are clearly audible whenever reading, writing or seeking. QIC tapes measure (6 x 4 x 0.7 inches; 15.2 x 10.2 x 1.7 mm). , which also use 1/4" wide tape are discussed separately. Tape libraries and changers are not available. Data thruput ranges from ~150kB/s to ~500kB/s. Data capacity ranges from 40 MB to 15 GB. Hardware compression is available on many of the newer QIC drives. QIC drives are less frequently installed; they are being supplanted by DAT drives. Data is recorded onto the tape in tracks. The tracks run along the long axis of the tape media from one end to the other. The number of tracks, and therefore the width of a track, varies with the tape's capacity. Most if not all newer drives provide backward-compatibility at least for reading (but often also for writing). QIC has a good reputation regarding the safety of the data (the mechanics are simpler and more robust than for helical scan drives). Tapes should be retired from use after 5,000 backups. * Mini-Cartridge DLT DLT has the fastest data transfer rate of all the drive types listed here. The 1/2" (12.5mm) tape is contained in a single spool cartridge (4 x 4 x 1 inches; 100 x 100 x 25 mm). The cartridge has a swinging gate along one entire side of the cartridge. The drive mechanism opens this gate to extract the tape leader. The tape leader has an oval hole in it which the drive uses to hook the tape. The take-up spool is located inside the tape drive. All the other tape cartridges listed here (9 track tapes are the only exception) have both the supply and take-up spools located inside the tape cartridge itself. Data thruput is approximately 1.5MB/s, three times the thruput of 4mm, 8mm, or QIC tape drives. Data capacities range from 10GB to 20GB for a single drive. Drives are available in both multi-tape changers and multi-tape, multi-drive tape libraries containing from 5 to 900 tapes over 1 to 20 drives, providing from 50GB to 9TB of storage. Data is recorded onto the tape in tracks parallel to the direction of travel (just like QIC tapes). Two tracks are written at once. Read/write head lifetimes are relatively long; once the tape stops moving, there is no relative motion between the heads and the tape. Using a new tape for the first time The first time that you try to read or write a new, completely blank tape, the operation will fail. The console messages should be similar to: st0(ncr1:4:0): NOT READY asc:4,1 st0(ncr1:4:0): Logical unit is in process of becoming ready The tape does not contain an Identifier Block (block number 0). All QIC tape drives since the adoption of QIC-525 standard write an Identifier Block to the tape. There are two solutions: mt fsf 1 causes the tape drive to write an Identifier Block to the tape. Use the front panel button to eject the tape. Re-insert the tape and dump8 data to the tape. dump8 will report DUMP: End of tape detected and the console will show: HARDWARE FAILURE info:280 asc:80,96 rewind the tape using: mt rewind Subsequent tape operations are successful. Backup Programs The three major programs are dump8, tar1, and cpio1. Dump and Restore dump8 and restore8 are the traditional Unix backup programs. They operate on the drive as a collection of disk blocks, below the abstractions of files, links and directories that are created by the filesystems. dump8 backs up devices, entire filesystems, not parts of a filesystem and not directory trees that span more than one filesystem, using either soft links ln1 or mounting one filesystem onto another. dump8 does not write files and directories to tape, but rather writes the data blocks that are the building blocks of files and directories. dump8 has quirks that remain from its early days in Version 6 of ATT Unix (circa 1975). The default parameters are suitable for 9-track tapes (6250 bpi), not the high-density media available today (up to 62,182 ftpi). These defaults must be overridden on the command line to utilize the capacity of current tape drives. rdump8 and rrestore8 backup data across the network to a tape drive attached to another computer. Both programs rely upon rcmd3 and ruserok3 to access the remote tape drive. Therefore, the user performing the backup must have rhosts access to the remote computer. The arguments to rdump8 and rrestore8 must suitable to use on the remote computer. (e.g. When rdump'ing from a FreeBSD computer to an Exabyte tape drive connected to a Sun called komodo, use: &prompt.root; /sbin/rdump 0dsbfu 54000 13000 126 komodo:/dev/nrst8 /dev/rsd0a 2>&1 ) Beware: there are security implications to allowing rhosts commands. Evaluate your situation carefully. Tar tar1 also dates back to Version 6 of ATT Unix (circa 1975). tar1 operates in cooperation with the filesystem; tar1 writes files and directories to tape. tar1 does not support the full range of options that are available from cpio1, but tar1 does not require the unusual command pipeline that cpio1 uses. Most versions of tar1 do not support backups across the network. The GNU version of tar1, which FreeBSD utilizes, supports remote devices using the same syntax as rdump. To tar1 to an Exabyte tape drive connected to a Sun called komodo, use: /usr/bin/tar cf komodo:/dev/nrst8 . 2>&1. For versions without remote device support, you can use a pipeline and rsh1 to send the data to a remote tape drive. (XXX add an example command) Cpio cpio1 is the original Unix file interchange tape program for magnetic media. cpio1 has options (among many others) to perform byte-swapping, write a number of different archives format, and pipe the data to other programs. This last feature makes cpio1 and excellent choice for installation media. cpio1 does not know how to walk the directory tree and a list of files must be provided thru STDIN. cpio1 does not support backups across the network. You can use a pipeline and rsh1 to send the data to a remote tape drive. (XXX add an example command) Pax pax1 is IEEE/POSIX's answer to tar and cpio. Over the years the various versions of tar and cpio have gotten slightly incompatible. So rather than fight it out to fully standardize them, POSIX created a new archive utility. pax attempts to read and write many of the various cpio and tar formats, plus new formats of its own. Its command set more resembles cpio than tar. <ulink URL="http://www.freebsd.org/ports/misc.html#amanda-2.2.6.5">Amanda</ulink> Amanda (Advanced Maryland Network Disk Archiver) is a client/server backup system, rather than a single program. An Amanda server will backup to a single tape drive any number of computers that have Amanda clients and network communications with the Amanda server. A common problem at locations with a number of large disks is the length of time required to backup to data directly to tape exceeds the amount of time available for the task. Amanda solves this problem. Amanda can use a holding disk to backup several filesystems at the same time. Amanda creates archive sets: a group of tapes used over a period of time to create full backups of all the filesystems listed in Amanda's configuration file. The archive set also contains nightly incremental (or differential) backups of all the filesystems. Restoring a damaged filesystem requires the most recent full backup and the incremental backups. The configuration file provides fine control backups and the network traffic that Amanda generates. Amanda will use any of the above backup programs to write the data to tape. Amanda is available as either a port or a package, it is not installed by default. Do nothing Do nothing is not a computer program, but it is the most widely used backup strategy. There are no initial costs. There is no backup schedule to follow. Just say no. If something happens to your data, grin and bear it! If your time and your data is worth little to nothing, then Do nothing is the most suitable backup program for your computer. But beware, Unix is a useful tool, you may find that within six months you have a collection of files that are valuable to you. Do nothing is the correct backup method for /usr/obj and other directory trees that can be exactly recreated by your computer. An example is the files that comprise these handbook pages-they have been generated from SGML input files. Creating backups of these HTML files is not necessary. The SGML source files are backed up regularly. Which Backup Program is Best? dump8 Period. Elizabeth D. Zwicky torture tested all the backup programs discussed here. The clear choice for preserving all your data and all the peculiarities of Unix filesystems is dump8. Elizabeth created filesystems containing a large variety of unusual conditions (and some not so unusual ones) and tested each program by do a backup and restore of that filesystems. The peculiarities included: files with holes, files with holes and a block of nulls, files with funny characters in their names, unreadable and unwritable files, devices, files that change size during the backup, files that are created/deleted during the backup and more. She presented the results at LISA V in Oct. 1991. Emergency Restore Procedure Before the Disaster There are only four steps that you need to perform in preparation for any disaster that may occur. Print the disklabel from each of your disks (e.g., disklabel sd0 | lpr), your filesystem table (/etc/fstab) and all boot messages, two copies of each. Determine the boot and fixit floppies (boot.flp and fixit.flp) have all your devices. The easiest way to check is to reboot your machine with the boot floppy in the floppy drive and check the boot messages. If all your devices are listed and functional, skip on to step three. Otherwise, you have to create two custom bootable floppies which has a kernel that can mount your all of your disks and access your tape drive. These floppies must contain: fdisk8, disklabel8, newfs8, mount8, and whichever backup program you use. These programs must be statically linked. If you use dump8, the floppy must contain restore8. Create backup tapes regularly. Any changes that you make after your last backup may be irretrievably lost. Write-protect the backup tapes. Test the floppies (either boot.flp and fixit.flp or the two custom bootable floppies you made in step two.) and backup tapes. Make notes of the procedure. Store these notes with the bootable floppy, the printouts and the backup tapes. You will be so distraught when restoring that the notes may prevent you from destroying your backup tapes (How? In place of tar xvf /dev/rst0, you might accidently type tar cvf /dev/rst0 and over-write your backup tape). For an added measure of security, make bootable floppies and two backup tapes each time. Store one of each at a remote location. A remote location is NOT the basement of the same office building. A number of firms in the World Trade Center learned this lesson the hard way. A remote location should be physically separated from your computers and disk drives by a significant distance. An example script for creating a bootable floppy: #!/bin/sh # # create a restore floppy # # format the floppy # PATH=/bin:/sbin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin fdformat -q fd0 if [ $? -ne 0 ] then echo "Bad floppy, please use a new one" exit 1 fi # place boot blocks on the floppy # disklabel -w -B -b /usr/mdec/fdboot -s /usr/mdec/bootfd /dev/rfd0c fd1440 # # newfs the one and only partition # newfs -t 2 -u 18 -l 1 -c 40 -i 5120 -m 5 -o space /dev/rfd0 # # mount the new floppy # mount /dev/fd0a /mnt # # create required directories # mkdir /mnt/dev mkdir /mnt/bin mkdir /mnt/sbin mkdir /mnt/etc mkdir /mnt/root mkdir /mnt/mnt # for the root partition mkdir /mnt/tmp mkdir /mnt/var # # populate the directories # if [ ! -x /sys/compile/MINI/kernel ] then cat << EOM The MINI kernel does not exist, please create one. Here is an example config file: # # MINI -- A kernel to get FreeBSD on onto a disk. # machine "i386" cpu "I486_CPU" ident MINI maxusers 5 options INET # needed for _tcp _icmpstat _ipstat # _udpstat _tcpstat _udb options FFS #Berkeley Fast File System options FAT_CURSOR #block cursor in syscons or pccons options SCSI_DELAY=15 #Be pessimistic about Joe SCSI device options NCONS=2 #1 virtual consoles options USERCONFIG #Allow user configuration with -c XXX config kernel root on sd0 swap on sd0 and sd1 dumps on sd0 controller isa0 controller pci0 controller fdc0 at isa? port "IO_FD1" bio irq 6 drq 2 vector fdintr disk fd0 at fdc0 drive 0 controller ncr0 controller scbus0 device sc0 at isa? port "IO_KBD" tty irq 1 vector scintr device npx0 at isa? port "IO_NPX" irq 13 vector npxintr device sd0 device sd1 device sd2 device st0 pseudo-device loop # required by INET pseudo-device gzip # Exec gzipped a.out's EOM exit 1 fi cp -f /sys/compile/MINI/kernel /mnt gzip -c -best /sbin/init > /mnt/sbin/init gzip -c -best /sbin/fsck > /mnt/sbin/fsck gzip -c -best /sbin/mount > /mnt/sbin/mount gzip -c -best /sbin/halt > /mnt/sbin/halt gzip -c -best /sbin/restore > /mnt/sbin/restore gzip -c -best /bin/sh > /mnt/bin/sh gzip -c -best /bin/sync > /mnt/bin/sync cp /root/.profile /mnt/root cp -f /dev/MAKEDEV /mnt/dev chmod 755 /mnt/dev/MAKEDEV chmod 500 /mnt/sbin/init chmod 555 /mnt/sbin/fsck /mnt/sbin/mount /mnt/sbin/halt chmod 555 /mnt/bin/sh /mnt/bin/sync chmod 6555 /mnt/sbin/restore # # create the devices nodes # cd /mnt/dev ./MAKEDEV std ./MAKEDEV sd0 ./MAKEDEV sd1 ./MAKEDEV sd2 ./MAKEDEV st0 ./MAKEDEV pty0 cd / # # create minimum filesystem table # cat > /mnt/etc/fstab <<EOM /dev/fd0a / ufs rw 1 1 EOM # # create minimum passwd file # cat > /mnt/etc/passwd <<EOM root:*:0:0:Charlie &:/root:/bin/sh EOM cat > /mnt/etc/master.passwd <<EOM root::0:0::0:0:Charlie &:/root:/bin/sh EOM chmod 600 /mnt/etc/master.passwd chmod 644 /mnt/etc/passwd /usr/sbin/pwd_mkdb -d/mnt/etc /mnt/etc/master.passwd # # umount the floppy and inform the user # /sbin/umount /mnt After the Disaster The key question is: did your hardware survive? You have been doing regular backups so there is no need to worry about the software. If the hardware has been damaged. First, replace those parts that have been damaged. If your hardware is okay, check your floppies. If you are using a custom boot floppy, boot single-user (type at the boot: prompt). Skip the following paragraph. If you are using the boot.flp and fixit.flp floppies, keep reading. Insert the boot.flp floppy in the first floppy drive and boot the computer. The original install menu will be displayed on the screen. Select the "Fixit--Repair mode with CDROM or floppy." option. Insert the fixit.flp when prompted. restore and the other programs that you need are located in /mnt2/stand. Recover each filesystem separately. Try to mount8 (e.g. mount /dev/sd0a /mnt) the root partition of your first disk. If the disklabel was damaged, use disklabel8 to re-partition and label the disk to match the label that your printed and saved. Use newfs8 to re-create the filesystems. Re-mount the root partition of the floppy read-write (mount -u -o rw /mnt). Use your backup program and backup tapes to recover the data for this filesystem (e.g. restore vrf /dev/st0). Unmount the filesystem (e.g. umount /mnt) Repeat for each filesystem that was damaged. Once your system is running, backup your data onto new tapes. Whatever caused the crash or data loss may strike again. An another hour spent now, may save you from further distress later. * I did not prepare for the Disaster, What Now? * Other * PCMCIA Localization Russian Language (KOI8-R encoding) Contributed by &a.ache; 1 May 1997. See more info about KOI8-R encoding at KOI8-R References (Russian Net Character Set). Console Setup Add following line to your kernel configuration file: options "SC_MOUSE_CHAR=0x03" to move character codes used for mouse cursor off KOI8-R pseudographics range. Russian console entry in /etc/rc.conf should looks like: keymap=ru.koi8-r keychange="61 ^[[K" scrnmap=koi8-r2cp866 font8x16=cp866b-8x16 font8x14=cp866-8x14 font8x8=cp866-8x8 ^[ means that real ESC character must be entered into /etc/rc.conf, not just ^[ string. This tuning means KOI8-R keyboard with Alternative screen font mapped to KOI8-R encoding to preserve pseudographics, Gray Delete key remapped to match Russian termcap5 entry for FreeBSD console. RUS/LAT switch will be CapsLock. Old CapsLock function still available via Shift+CapsLock. CapsLock LED will indicate RUS mode, not CapsLock mode. For each ttyv? entry in /etc/ttys change terminal type from cons25 to cons25r, i.e. each entry should looks like: ttyv0 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25r on secure Locale Setup There is two environment variables for locale setup: LANG for POSIX setlocale3 family functions; MM_CHARSET for applications MIME chararter set. The best way is using /etc/login.conf russian user's login class in passwd5 entry login class position. See login.conf5 for details. Login Class Method First of all check your /etc/login.conf have russian login class, this entry may looks like: russian:Russian Users Accounts:\ :charset=KOI8-R:\ :lang=ru_RU.KOI8-R:\ :tc=default: How to do it with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>vipw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> If you use vipw8 for adding new users, /etc/master.passwd entry should looks like: user:password:1111:11:russian:0:0:User Name:/home/user:/bin/csh How to do it with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>adduser</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> If you use adduser8 for adding new users: Set defaultclass = russian in /etc/adduser.conf (you must enter default class for all non-Russian users in this case); Alternative variant will be answering russian each time when you see Enter login class: default []: prompt from adduser8; Another variant: call &prompt.root; adduser -class russian for each Russian user you want to add. How to do it with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> If you use pw8 for adding new users, call it in this form: &prompt.root; pw useradd user_name -L russian Shell Startup Files Method If you don't want to use for some reasons, just set this in the following shell startup files: /etc/profile: LANG=ru_RU.KOI8-R; export LANG MM_CHARSET=KOI8-R; export MM_CHARSET /etc/csh.login: setenv LANG ru_RU.KOI8-R setenv MM_CHARSET KOI8-R Alternatively you can add this instructions to /usr/share/skel/dot.profile: (similar to /etc/profile above); /usr/share/skel/dot.login: (similar to /etc/csh.login above). Printer Setup Since most printers with Russian characters comes with hardware code page CP866, special output filter needed for KOI8-R -> CP866 conversion. Such filter installed by default as /usr/libexec/lpr/ru/koi2alt. So, Russian printer /etc/printcap entry should looks like: lp|Russian local line printer:\ :sh:of=/usr/libexec/lpr/ru/koi2alt:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/output/lpd:lf=/var/log/lpd-errs: See printcap5 for detailed description. MSDOS FS and Russian file names Look at following example fstab5 entry to enable support for Russian file names in MSDOS FS: /dev/sd0s1 /dos/c msdos rw,-W=koi2dos,-L=ru_RU.KOI8-R 0 0 See mount_msdos8for detailed description of and options. X Window Setup Step by step instructions: Do first as described. Russian KOI8-R locale may not work with old XFree86 releases (lower than 3.3). XFree86 port from /usr/ports/x11/XFree86 already have most recent XFree86 version, so it will work, if you install XFree86 from this port. XFree86 version shipped with the latest FreeBSD distribution should work too (check XFree86 version number not less than 3.3 first). Go to /usr/ports/russian/X.language directory and say &prompt.root; make all install there. This port install latest version of KOI8-R fonts. XFree86 3.3 already have some KOI8-R fonts, but this ones scaled better. Check find "Files" section in your /etc/XF86Config, following lines must be before any other FontPath entries: FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/misc" FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/75dpi" FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/100dpi" If you use high resolution video mode, swap 75 dpi and 100 dpi lines. To activate Russian keyboard add XkbKeymap "xfree86(ru)" line into "Keyboard" section in your /etc/XF86Config, also make sure that XkbDisable is turned off (commented out) there. RUS/LAT switch will be CapsLock. Old CapsLock function still available via Shift+CapsLock (in LAT mode only). Russian XKB keyboard may not work with old XFree86 versions, see for more info. Russian XKB keyboard may not work with non-localized applications too, minimally localized application should call XtSetLanguageProc (NULL, NULL, NULL); function early in the program. German Language (ISO 8859-1) Slaven Rezic eserte@cs.tu-berlin.de wrote a tutorial how to use umlauts on a FreeBSD machine. The tutorial is written in German and available at http://www.de.freebsd.org/de/umlaute/. Network Communications Serial Communications Serial Basics Assembled from FAQ. This section should give you some general information about serial ports. If you do not find what you want here, check into the Terminal and Dialup sections of the handbook. The ttydX (or cuaaX) device is the regular device you will want to open for your applications. When a process opens the device, it will have a default set of terminal I/O settings. You can see these settings with the command &prompt.root; stty -a -f /dev/ttyd1 When you change the settings to this device, the settings are in effect until the device is closed. When it is reopened, it goes back to the default set. To make changes to the default set, you can open and adjust the settings of the initial state device. For example, to turn on CLOCAL mode, 8 bits, and XON/XOFF flow control by default for ttyd5, do: &prompt.root; stty -f /dev/ttyid5 clocal cs8 ixon ixoff A good place to do this is in /etc/rc.serial. Now, an application will have these settings by default when it opens ttyd5. It can still change these settings to its liking, though. You can also prevent certain settings from being changed by an application by making adjustments to the lock state device. For example, to lock the speed of ttyd5 to 57600 bps, do &prompt.root; stty -f /dev/ttyld5 57600 Now, an application that opens ttyd5 and tries to change the speed of the port will be stuck with 57600 bps. Naturally, you should make the initial state and lock state devices writable only by root. The MAKEDEV script does not do this when it creates the device entries. Terminals Contributed by &a.kelly;28 July 1996 Terminals provide a convenient and low-cost way to access the power of your FreeBSD system when you are not at the computer's console or on a connected network. This section describes how to use terminals with FreeBSD. Uses and Types of Terminals The original Unix systems did not have consoles. Instead, people logged in and ran programs through terminals that were connected to the computer's serial ports. It is quite similar to using a modem and some terminal software to dial into a remote system to do text-only work. Today's PCs have consoles capable of high quality graphics, but the ability to establish a login session on a serial port still exists in nearly every Unix-style operating system today; FreeBSD is no exception. By using a terminal attached to a unused serial port, you can log in and run any text program that you would normally run on the console or in an xterm window in the X Window System. For the business user, you can attach many terminals to a FreeBSD system and place them on your employees' desktops. For a home user, a spare computer such as an older IBM PC or a Macintosh can be a terminal wired into a more powerful computer running FreeBSD. You can turn what might otherwise be a single-user computer into a powerful multiple user system. For FreeBSD, there are three kinds of terminals: The remaining subsections describe each kind. Dumb Terminals Dumb terminals are specialized pieces of hardware that let you connect to computers over serial lines. They are called dumb because they have only enough computational power to display, send, and receive text. You cannot run any programs on them. It is the computer to which you connect them that has all the power to run text editors, compilers, email, games, and so forth. There are hundreds of kinds of dumb terminals made by many manufacturers, including Digital Equipment Corporation's VT-100 and Wyse's WY-75. Just about any kind will work with FreeBSD. Some high-end terminals can even display graphics, but only certain software packages can take advantage of these advanced features. Dumb terminals are popular in work environments where workers do not need access to graphic applications such as those provided by the X Window System. PCs Acting As Terminals If a has just enough ability to display, send, and receive text, then certainly any spare personal computer can be a dumb terminal. All you need is the proper cable and some terminal emulation software to run on the computer. Such a configuration is popular in homes. For example, if your spouse is busy working on your FreeBSD system's console, you can do some text-only work at the same time from a less powerful personal computer hooked up as a terminal to the FreeBSD system. X Terminals X terminals are the most sophisticated kind of terminal available. Instead of connecting to a serial port, they usually connect to a network like Ethernet. Instead of being relegated to text-only applications, they can display any X application. We introduce X terminals just for the sake of completeness. However, this chapter does not cover setup, configuration, or use of X terminals. Cables and Ports To connect a terminal to your FreeBSD system, you need the right kind of cable and a serial port to which to connect it. This section tells you what to do. If you are already familiar with your terminal and the cable it requires, skip to . Cables Because terminals use serial ports, you need to use serial—also known as RS-232C—cables to connect the terminal to the FreeBSD system. There are a couple of kinds of serial cables. Which one you'll use depends on the terminal you want to connect: If you are connecting a personal computer to act as a terminal, use a cable. A null-modem cable connects two computers or terminals together. If you have an actual terminal, your best source of information on what cable to use is the documentation that accompanied the terminal. If you do not have the documentation, then try a cable. If that does not work, then try a cable. Also, the serial port on both the terminal and your FreeBSD system must have connectors that will fit the cable you are using. Null-modem cables A null-modem cable passes some signals straight through, like signal ground, but switches other signals. For example, the send data pin on one end goes to the receive data pin on the other end. If you like making your own cables, here is a table showing a recommended way to construct a null-modem cable for use with terminals. This table shows the RS-232C signal names and the pin numbers on a DB-25 connector. Signal Pin # Pin # Signal TxD 2 connects to 3 RxD RxD 3 connects to 2 TxD DTR 20 connects to 6 DSR DSR 6 connects to 20 DTR SG 7 connects to 7 SG DCD 8 connects to 4 RTS Connect pins 4 to 5 internally in the connector hood, and then to pin 8 in the remote hood. RTS 4 5 CTS CTS 5 connects to 8 DCD Standard RS-232C Cables A standard serial cable passes all the RS-232C signals straight-through. That is, the send data pin on one end of the cable goes to the send data pin on the other end. This is the type of cable to connect a modem to your FreeBSD system, and the type of cable needed for some terminals. Ports Serial ports are the devices through which data is transferred between the FreeBSD host computer and the terminal. This section describes the kinds of ports that exist and how they are addressed in FreeBSD. Kinds of Ports Several kinds of serial ports exist. Before you purchase or construct a cable, you need to make sure it will fit the ports on your terminal and on the FreeBSD system. Most terminals will have DB25 ports. Personal computers, including PCs running FreeBSD, will have DB25 or DB9 ports. If you have a multiport serial card for your PC, you may have RJ-12 or RJ-45 ports. See the documentation that accompanied the hardware for specifications on the kind of port in use. A visual inspection of the port often works, too. Port Names In FreeBSD, you access each serial port through an entry in the /dev directory. There are two different kinds of entries: Callin ports are named /dev/ttydX where X is the port number, starting from zero. Generally, you use the callin port for terminals. Callin ports require that the serial line assert the data carrier detect (DCD) signal to work. Callout ports are named /dev/cuaaX. You usually do not use the callout port for terminals, just for modems. You may use the callout port if the serial cable or the terminal does not support the carrier detect signal. See the sio4 manual page for more information. If you have connected a terminal to the first serial port (COM1 in DOS parlance), then you want to use /dev/ttyd0 to refer to the terminal. If it is on the second serial port (also known as COM2), it is /dev/ttyd1, and so forth. Note that you may have to configure your kernel to support each serial port, especially if you have a multiport serial card. See for more information. Configuration This section describes what you need to configure on your FreeBSD system to enable a login session on a terminal. It assumes you have already configured your kernel to support the serial port to which the terminal is connected—and that you have connected it. In a nutshell, you need to tell the init process, which is responsible for process control and initialization, to start a getty process, which is responsible for reading a login name and starting the login program. To do so, you have to edit the /etc/ttys file. First, use the su command to become root. Then, make the following changes to /etc/ttys: Add an line to /etc/ttys for the entry in the /dev directory for the serial port if it is not already there. Specify that /usr/libexec/getty be run on the port, and specify the appropriate getty type from the /etc/gettytab file. Specify the default terminal type. Set the port to on. Specify whether the port should be secure. Force init to reread the /etc/ttys file. As an optional step, you may wish to create a custom getty type for use in step 2 by making an entry in /etc/gettytab. This document does not explain how to do so; you are encouraged to see the gettytab5 and the getty8 manual pages for more information. The remaining sections detail how to do these steps. We will use a running example throughout these sections to illustrate what we need to do. In our example, we will connect two terminals to the system: a Wyse-50 and a old 286 IBM PC running Procomm terminal software emulating a VT-100 terminal. We connect the Wyse to the second serial port and the 286 to the sixth serial port (a port on a multiport serial card). For more information on the /etc/ttys file, see the ttys5 manual page. Adding an Entry to <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> First, you need to add an entry to the /etc/ttys file, unless one is already there. The /etc/ttys file lists all of the ports on your FreeBSD system where you want to allow logins. For example, the first virtual console ttyv0 has an entry in this file. You can log in on the console using this entry. This file contains entries for the other virtual consoles, serial ports, and pseudo-ttys. For a hardwired terminal, just list the serial port's /dev entry without the /dev part. When you installed your FreeBSD system, the /etc/ttys file included entries for the first four serial ports: ttyd0 through ttyd3. If you are attaching a terminal on one of those ports, you do not need to add an entry. In our example, we attached a Wyse-50 to the second serial port, ttyd1, which is already in the file. We need to add an entry for the 286 PC connected to the sixth serial port. Here is an excerpt of the /etc/ttys file after we add the new entry: ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd5 Specifying the <replaceable>getty</replaceable> Type Next, we need to specify what program will be run to handle the logins on a terminal. For FreeBSD, the standard program to do that is /usr/libexec/getty. It is what provides the login: prompt. The program getty takes one (optional) parameter on its command line, the getty type. A getty type tells about characteristics on the terminal line, like bps rate and parity. The getty program reads these characteristics from the file /etc/gettytab. The file /etc/gettytab contains lots of entries for terminal lines both old and new. In almost all cases, the entries that start with the text std will work for hardwired terminals. These entries ignore parity. There is a std entry for each bps rate from 110 to 115200. Of course, you can add your own entries to this file. The manual page gettytab5 provides more information. When setting the getty type in the /etc/ttys file, make sure that the communications settings on the terminal match. For our example, the Wyse-50 uses no parity and connects at 38400 bps. The 286 PC uses no parity and connects at 19200 bps. Here is the /etc/ttys file so far (showing just the two terminals in which we are interested): ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" unknown off secure ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" Note that the second field—where we specify what program to run—appears in quotes. This is important, otherwise the type argument to getty might be interpreted as the next field. Specifying the Default Terminal Type The third field in the /etc/ttys file lists the default terminal type for the port. For dialup ports, you typically put unknown or dialup in this field because users may dial up with practically any kind of terminal or software. For hardwired terminals, the terminal type does not change, so you can put a real terminal type in this field. Users will usually use the tset program in their .login or .profile files to check the terminal type and prompt for one if necessary. By setting a terminal type in the /etc/ttys file, users can forego such prompting. To find out what terminal types FreeBSD supports, see the file /usr/share/misc/termcap. It lists about 600 terminal types. You can add more if you wish. See the termcap5 manual page for information. In our example, the Wyse-50 is a Wyse-50 type of terminal (although it can emulate others, we will leave it in Wyse-50 mode). The 286 PC is running Procomm which will be set to emulate a VT-100. Here are the pertinent yet unfinished entries from the /etc/ttys file: ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" wy50 off secure ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" vt100 Enabling the Port The next field in /etc/ttys, the fourth field, tells whether to enable the port. Putting on here will have the init process start the program in the second field, getty, which will prompt for a login. If you put off in the fourth field, there will be no getty, and hence no logins on the port. So, naturally, you want an on in this field. Here again is the /etc/ttys file. We have turned each port on. ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" wy50 on secure ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" vt100 on Specifying Secure Ports We have arrived at the last field (well, almost: there is an optional window specifier, but we will ignore that). The last field tells whether the port is secure. What does secure mean? It means that the root account (or any account with a user ID of 0) may login on the port. Insecure ports do not allow root to login. How do you use secure and insecure ports? By marking a port as insecure, the terminal to which it is connected will not allow root to login. People who know the root password to your FreeBSD system will first have to login using a regular user account. To gain superuser privileges, they will then have to use the su command. Because of this, you will have two records to help track down possible compromises of root privileges: both the login and the su command make records in the system log (and logins are also recorded in the wtmp file). By marking a port as secure, the terminal will allow root in. People who know the root password will just login as root. You will not have the potentially useful login and su command records. Which should you use? Just use insecure. Use insecure even for terminals not in public user areas or behind locked doors. It is quite easy to login and use su if you need superuser privileges. Here finally are the completed entries in the /etc/ttys file, with comments added to describe where the terminals are: ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" wy50 on insecure # Kitchen ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" vt100 on insecure # Guest bathroom Force <command>init</command> to Reread <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> When you boot FreeBSD, the first process, init, will read the /etc/ttys file and start the programs listed for each enabled port to prompt for logins. After you edit /etc/ttys, you do not want to have to reboot your system to get init to see the changes. So, init will reread /etc/ttys if it receives a SIGHUP (hangup) signal. So, after you have saved your changes to /etc/ttys, send SIGHUP to init by typing: &prompt.root; kill -HUP 1 (The init process always has process ID 1.) If everything is set up correctly, all cables are in place, and the terminals are powered up, you should see login prompts. Your terminals are ready for their first logins! Debugging your connection Even with the most meticulous attention to detail, something could still go wrong while setting up a terminal. Here is a list of symptoms and some suggested fixes. No login prompt appears Make sure the terminal is plugged in and powered up. If it is a personal computer acting as a terminal, make sure it is running terminal emulation software on the correct serial port. Make sure the cable is connected firmly to both the terminal and the FreeBSD computer. Make sure it is the right kind of cable. Make sure the terminal and FreeBSD agree on the bps rate and parity settings. If you have a video display terminal, make sure the contrast and brightness controls are turned up. If it is a printing terminal, make sure paper and ink are in good supply. Make sure that a getty process is running and serving the terminal. Type &prompt.root; ps -axww|grep getty to get a list of running getty processes. You should see an entry for the terminal. For example, the display 22189 d1 Is+ 0:00.03 /usr/libexec/getty std.38400 ttyd1 shows that a getty is running on the second serial port ttyd1 and is using the std.38400 entry in /etc/gettytab. If no getty process is running, make sure you have enabled the port in /etc/ttys. Make sure you have run kill -HUP 1. Garbage appears instead of a login prompt Make sure the terminal and FreeBSD agree on the bps rate and parity settings. Check the getty processes to make sure the correct getty type is in use. If not, edit /etc/ttys and run kill -HUP 1. Characters appear doubled; the password appears when typed Switch the terminal (or the terminal emulation software) from half duplex or local echo to full duplex. Dialin Service Contributed by &a.ghelmer;. This document provides suggestions for configuring a FreeBSD system to handle dialup modems. This document is written based on the author's experience with FreeBSD versions 1.0, 1.1, and 1.1.5.1 (and experience with dialup modems on other UNIX-like operating systems); however, this document may not answer all of your questions or provide examples specific enough to your environment. The author cannot be responsible if you damage your system or lose data due to attempting to follow the suggestions here. Prerequisites To begin with, the author assumes you have some basic knowledge of FreeBSD. You need to have FreeBSD installed, know how to edit files in a UNIX-like environment, and how to look up manual pages on the system. As discussed below, you will need certain versions of FreeBSD, and knowledge of some terminology & modem and cabling. FreeBSD Version First, it is assumed that you are using FreeBSD version 1.1 or higher (including versions 2.x). FreeBSD version 1.0 included two different serial drivers, which complicates the situation. Also, the serial device driver (sio) has improved in every release of FreeBSD, so more recent versions of FreeBSD are assumed to have better and more efficient drivers than earlier versions. Terminology A quick rundown of terminology: bps Bits per Second — the rate at which data is transmitted DTE Data Terminal Equipment — for example, your computer DCE Data Communications Equipment — your modem RS-232 EIA standard for serial communications via hardware If you need more information about these terms and data communications in general, the author remembers reading that The RS-232 Bible (anybody have an ISBN?) is a good reference. When talking about communications data rates, the author does not use the term baud. Baud refers to the number of electrical state transitions that may be made in a period of time, while bps (bits per second) is the correct term to use (at least it does not seem to bother the curmudgeons quite a much). External vs. Internal Modems External modems seem to be more convenient for dialup, because external modems often can be semi-permanently configured via parameters stored in non-volatile RAM and they usually provide lighted indicators that display the state of important RS-232 signals. Blinking lights impress visitors, but lights are also very useful to see whether a modem is operating properly. Internal modems usually lack non-volatile RAM, so their configuration may be limited only to setting DIP switches. If your internal modem has any signal indicator lights, it is probably difficult to view the lights when the system's cover is in place. Modems and Cables A background knowledge of these items is assumed You know how to connect your modem to your computer so that the two can communicate (unless you have an internal modem, which does not need such a cable) You are familiar with your modem's command set, or know where to look up needed commands You know how to configure your modem (probably via a terminal communications program) so you can set the non-volatile RAM parameters The first, connecting your modem, is usually simple — most straight-through serial cables work without any problems. You need to have a cable with appropriate connectors (DB-25 or DB-9, male or female) on each end, and the cable must be a DCE-to-DTE cable with these signals wired: Transmitted Data (SD) Received Data (RD) Request to Send (RTS) Clear to Send (CTS) Data Set Ready (DSR) Data Terminal Ready (DTR) Carrier Detect (CD) Signal Ground (SG) FreeBSD needs the RTS and CTS signals for flow-control at speeds above 2400bps, the CD signal to detect when a call has been answered or the line has been hung up, and the DTR signal to reset the modem after a session is complete. Some cables are wired without all of the needed signals, so if you have problems, such as a login session not going away when the line hangs up, you may have a problem with your cable. The second prerequisite depends on the modem(s) you use. If you do not know your modem's command set by heart, you will need to have the modem's reference book or user's guide handy. Sample commands for USR Sportster 14,400 external modems will be given, which you may be able to use as a reference for your own modem's commands. Lastly, you will need to know how to setup your modem so that it will work well with FreeBSD. Like other UNIX-like operating systems, FreeBSD uses the hardware signals to find out when a call has been answered or a line has been hung up and to hangup and reset the modem after a call. FreeBSD avoids sending commands to the modem or watching for status reports from the modem. If you are familiar with connecting modems to PC-based bulletin board systems, this may seem awkward. Serial Interface Considerations FreeBSD supports NS8250-, NS16450-, NS16550-, and NS16550A-based EIA RS-232C (CCITT V.24) communications interfaces. The 8250 and 16450 devices have single-character buffers. The 16550 device provides a 16-character buffer, which allows for better system performance. (Bugs in plain 16550's prevent the use of the 16-character buffer, so use 16550A's if possible). Because single-character-buffer devices require more work by the operating system than the 16-character-buffer devices, 16550A-based serial interface cards are much prefered. If the system has many active serial ports or will have a heavy load, 16550A-based cards are better for low-error-rate communications. Quick Overview Here is the process that FreeBSD follows to accept dialup logins. A getty process, spawned by init, patiently waits to open the assigned serial port (/dev/ttyd0, for our example). The command ps ax might show this: 4850 ?? I 0:00.09 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0 When a user dials the modem's line and the modems connect, the CD line is asserted by the modem. The kernel notices that carrier has been detected and completes getty's open of the port. getty sends a login: prompt at the specified initial line speed. getty watches to see if legitimate characters are received, and, in a typical configuration, if it finds junk (probably due to the modem's connection speed being different than getty's speed), getty tries adjusting the line speeds until it receives reasonable characters. We hope getty finds the correct speed and the user sees a login: prompt. After the user enters his/her login name, getty executes /usr/bin/login, which completes the login by asking for the user's password and then starting the user's shell. Let's dive into the configuration... Kernel Configuration FreeBSD kernels typically come prepared to search for four serial ports, known in the PC-DOS world as COM1:, COM2:, COM3:, and COM4:. FreeBSD can presently also handle dumb multiport serial interface cards, such as the Boca Board 1008 and 2016 (please see the manual page sio4 for kernel configuration information if you have a multiport serial card). The default kernel only looks for the standard COM ports, though. To see if your kernel recognizes any of your serial ports, watch for messages while the kernel is booting, or use the /sbin/dmesg command to replay the kernel's boot messages. In particular, look for messages that start with the characters sio. Hint: to view just the messages that have the word sio, use the command: &prompt.root; /sbin/dmesg | grep 'sio' For example, on a system with four serial ports, these are the serial-port specific kernel boot messages: sio0 at 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 on isa sio0: type 16550A sio1 at 0x2f8-0x2ff irq 3 on isa sio1: type 16550A sio2 at 0x3e8-0x3ef irq 5 on isa sio2: type 16550A sio3 at 0x2e8-0x2ef irq 9 on isa sio3: type 16550A If your kernel does not recognize all of your serial ports, you will probably need to configure a custom FreeBSD kernel for your system. Please see the BSD System Manager's Manual chapter on Building Berkeley Kernels with Config [the source for which is in /usr/src/share/doc/smm] and FreeBSD Configuration Options [in /sys/conf/options and in /sys/arch/conf/options.arch, with arch for example being i386] for more information on configuring and building kernels. You may have to unpack the kernel source distribution if have not installed the system sources already (srcdist/srcsys.?? in FreeBSD 1.1, srcdist/sys.?? in FreeBSD 1.1.5.1, or the entire source distribution in FreeBSD 2.0) to be able to configure and build kernels. Create a kernel configuration file for your system (if you have not already) by cding to /sys/i386/conf. Then, if you are creating a new custom configuration file, copy the file GENERICAH (or GENERICBT, if you have a BusTek SCSI controller on FreeBSD 1.x) to YOURSYS, where YOURSYS is the name of your system, but in upper-case letters. Edit the file, and change the device lines: device sio0 at isa? port "IO_COM1" tty irq 4 vector siointr device sio1 at isa? port "IO_COM2" tty irq 3 vector siointr device sio2 at isa? port "IO_COM3" tty irq 5 vector siointr device sio3 at isa? port "IO_COM4" tty irq 9 vector siointr You can comment-out or completely remove lines for devices you do not have. If you have a multiport serial board, such as the Boca Board BB2016, please see the sio4 man page for complete information on how to write configuration lines for multiport boards. Be careful if you are using a configuration file that was previously used for a different version of FreeBSD because the device flags have changed between versions. port "IO_COM1" is a substitution for port 0x3f8, IO_COM2 is 0x2f8, IO_COM3 is 0x3e8, and IO_COM4 is 0x2e8, which are fairly common port addresses for their respective serial ports; interrupts 4, 3, 5, and 9 are fairly common interrupt request lines. Also note that regular serial ports cannot share interrupts on ISA-bus PCs (multiport boards have on-board electronics that allow all the 16550A's on the board to share one or two interrupt request lines). When you are finished adjusting the kernel configuration file, use the program config as documented in Building Berkeley Kernels with Config and the config8 manual page to prepare a kernel building directory, then build, install, and test the new kernel. Device Special Files Most devices in the kernel are accessed through device special files, which are located in the /dev directory. The sio devices are accessed through the /dev/ttyd? (dial-in) and /dev/cua0? (call-out) devices. On FreeBSD version 1.1.5 and higher, there are also initialization devices (/dev/ttyid? and /dev/cuai0?) and locking devices (/dev/ttyld? and /dev/cual0?). The initialization devices are used to initialize communications port parameters each time a port is opened, such as crtscts for modems which use CTS/RTS signaling for flow control. The locking devices are used to lock flags on ports to prevent users or programs changing certain parameters; see the manual pages termios4, sio4, and stty1 for information on the terminal settings, locking & initializing devices, and setting terminal options, respectively. Making Device Special Files A shell script called MAKEDEV in the /dev directory manages the device special files. (The manual page for MAKEDEV8 on FreeBSD 1.1.5 is fairly bogus in its discussion of COM ports, so ignore it.) To use MAKEDEV to make dialup device special files for COM1: (port 0), cd to /dev and issue the command MAKEDEV ttyd0. Likewise, to make dialup device special files for COM2: (port 1), use MAKEDEV ttyd1. MAKEDEV not only creates the /dev/ttyd? device special files, but also creates the /dev/cua0? (and all of the initializing and locking special files under FreeBSD 1.1.5 and up) and removes the hardwired terminal special file /dev/tty0?, if it exists. After making new device special files, be sure to check the permissions on the files (especially the /dev/cua* files) to make sure that only users who should have access to those device special files can read & write on them — you probably do not want to allow your average user to use your modems to dialout. The default permissions on the /dev/cua* files should be sufficient: crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 129 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cua01 crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 161 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cuai01 crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 193 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cual01 These permissions allow the user uucp and users in the group dialer to use the call-out devices. Configuration Files There are three system configuration files in the /etc directory that you will probably need to edit to allow dialup access to your FreeBSD system. The first, /etc/gettytab, contains configuration information for the /usr/libexec/getty daemon. Second, /etc/ttys holds information that tells /sbin/init what tty devices should have getty processes running on them. Lastly, you can place port initialization commands in the /etc/rc.serial script if you have FreeBSD 1.1.5.1 or higher; otherwise, you can initialize ports in the /etc/rc.local script. There are two schools of thought regarding dialup modems on UNIX. One group likes to configure their modems and system so that no matter at what speed a remote user dials in, the local computer-to-modem RS-232 interface runs at a locked speed. The benefit of this configuration is that the remote user always sees a system login prompt immediately. The downside is that the system does not know what a user's true data rate is, so full-screen programs like Emacs will not adjust their screen-painting methods to make their response better for slower connections. The other school configures their modems' RS-232 interface to vary its speed based on the remote user's connection speed. For example, V.32bis (14.4 Kbps) connections to the modem might make the modem run its RS-232 interface at 19.2 Kbps, while 2400 bps connections make the modem's RS-232 interface run at 2400 bps. Because getty does not understand any particular modem's connection speed reporting, getty gives a login: message at an initial speed and watches the characters that come back in response. If the user sees junk, it is assumed that they know they should press the <Enter> key until they see a recognizable prompt. If the data rates do not match, getty sees anything the user types as junk, tries going to the next speed and gives the login: prompt again. This procedure can continue ad nauseum, but normally only takes a keystroke or two before the user sees a good prompt. Obviously, this login sequence does not look as clean as the former locked-speed method, but a user on a low-speed connection should receive better interactive response from full-screen programs. The author will try to give balanced configuration information, but is biased towards having the modem's data rate follow the connection rate. <filename>/etc/gettytab</filename> /etc/gettytab is a termcap5-style file of configuration information for getty8. Please see the gettytab5 manual page for complete information on the format of the file and the list of capabilities. Locked-Speed Config If you are locking your modem's data communications rate at a particular speed, you probably will not need to make any changes to /etc/gettytab. Matching-Speed Config You will need to setup an entry in /etc/gettytab to give getty information about the speeds you wish to use for your modem. If you have a 2400 bps modem, you can probably use the existing D2400 entry. This entry already exists in the FreeBSD 1.1.5.1 gettytab file, so you do not need to add it unless it is missing under your version of FreeBSD: # # Fast dialup terminals, 2400/1200/300 rotary (can start either way) # D2400|d2400|Fast-Dial-2400:\ :nx=D1200:tc=2400-baud: 3|D1200|Fast-Dial-1200:\ :nx=D300:tc=1200-baud: 5|D300|Fast-Dial-300:\ :nx=D2400:tc=300-baud: If you have a higher speed modem, you will probably need to add an entry in /etc/gettytab; here is an entry you could use for a 14.4 Kbps modem with a top interface speed of 19.2 Kbps: # # Additions for a V.32bis Modem # um|V300|High Speed Modem at 300,8-bit:\ :nx=V19200:tc=std.300: un|V1200|High Speed Modem at 1200,8-bit:\ :nx=V300:tc=std.1200: uo|V2400|High Speed Modem at 2400,8-bit:\ :nx=V1200:tc=std.2400: up|V9600|High Speed Modem at 9600,8-bit:\ :nx=V2400:tc=std.9600: uq|V19200|High Speed Modem at 19200,8-bit:\ :nx=V9600:tc=std.19200: On FreeBSD 1.1.5 and later, this will result in 8-bit, no parity connections. Under FreeBSD 1.1, add :np: parameters to the std.xxx entries at the top of the file for 8 bits, no parity; otherwise, the default is 7 bits, even parity. The example above starts the communications rate at 19.2 Kbps (for a V.32bis connection), then cycles through 9600 bps (for V.32), 2400 bps, 1200 bps, 300 bps, and back to 19.2 Kbps. Communications rate cycling is implemented with the nx= (next table) capability. Each of the lines uses a tc= (table continuation) entry to pick up the rest of the standard settings for a particular data rate. If you have a 28.8 Kbps modem and/or you want to take advantage of compression on a 14.4 Kbps modem, you need to use a higher communications rate than 19.2 Kbps. Here is an example of a gettytab entry starting a 57.6 Kbps: # # Additions for a V.32bis or V.34 Modem # Starting at 57.6 Kbps # vm|VH300|Very High Speed Modem at 300,8-bit:\ :nx=VH57600:tc=std.300: vn|VH1200|Very High Speed Modem at 1200,8-bit:\ :nx=VH300:tc=std.1200: vo|VH2400|Very High Speed Modem at 2400,8-bit:\ :nx=VH1200:tc=std.2400: vp|VH9600|Very High Speed Modem at 9600,8-bit:\ :nx=VH2400:tc=std.9600: vq|VH57600|Very High Speed Modem at 57600,8-bit:\ :nx=VH9600:tc=std.57600: If you have a slow CPU or a heavily loaded system and you do not have 16550A-based serial ports, you may receive sio silo errors at 57.6 Kbps. <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> /etc/ttys is the list of ttys for init to monitor. /etc/ttys also provides security information to login (user root may only login on ttys marked secure). See the manual page for ttys5 for more information. You will need to either modify existing lines in /etc/ttys or add new lines to make init run getty processes automatically on your new dialup ports. The general format of the line will be the same, whether you are using a locked-speed or matching-speed configuration: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty xxx" dialup on The first item in the above line is the device special file for this entry — ttyd0 means /dev/ttyd0 is the file that this getty will be watching. The second item, "/usr/libexec/getty xxx" (xxx will be replaced by the initial gettytab capability) is the process init will run on the device. The third item, dialup, is the default terminal type. The fourth parameter, on, indicates to init that the line is operational. There can be a fifth parameter, secure, but it should only be used for terminals which are physically secure (such as the system console). The default terminal type (dialup in the example above) may depend on local preferences. dialup is the traditional default terminal type on dialup lines so that users may customize their login scripts to notice when the terminal is dialup and automatically adjust their terminal type. However, the author finds it easier at his site to specify vt102 as the default terminal type, since the users just use VT102 emulation on their remote systems. After you have made changes to /etc/ttys, you may send the init process a HUP signal to re-read the file. You can use the command &prompt.root; kill -1 1 to send the signal. If this is your first time setting up the system, though, you may want to wait until your modem(s) are properly configured and connected before signaling init. Locked-Speed Config For a locked-speed configuration, your ttys entry needs to have a fixed-speed entry provided to getty. For a modem whose port speed is locked at 19.2 Kbps, the ttys entry might look like this: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" dialup on If your modem is locked at a different data rate, substitute the appropriate name for the std.speed entry for std.19200 from /etc/gettytab for your modem's data rate. Matching-Speed Config In a matching-speed configuration, your ttys entry needs to reference the appropriate beginning auto-baud (sic) entry in /etc/gettytab. For example, if you added the above suggested entry for a matching-speed modem that starts at 19.2 Kbps (the gettytab entry containing the V19200 starting point), your ttys entry might look like this: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty V19200" dialup on <filename>/etc/rc.serial</filename> or <filename>/etc/rc.local</filename> High-speed modems, like V.32, V.32bis, and V.34 modems, need to use hardware (RTS/CTS) flow control. You can add stty commands to /etc/rc.serial on FreeBSD 1.1.5.1 and up, or /etc/rc.local on FreeBSD 1.1, to set the hardware flow control flag in the FreeBSD kernel for the modem ports. For example, on a sample FreeBSD 1.1.5.1 system, /etc/rc.serial reads: #!/bin/sh # # Serial port initial configuration stty -f /dev/ttyid1 crtscts stty -f /dev/cuai01 crtscts This sets the termios flag crtscts on serial port #1's (COM2:) dialin and dialout initialization devices. On an old FreeBSD 1.1 system, these entries were added to /etc/rc.local to set the crtscts flag on the devices: # Set serial ports to use RTS/CTS flow control stty -f /dev/ttyd0 crtscts stty -f /dev/ttyd1 crtscts stty -f /dev/ttyd2 crtscts stty -f /dev/ttyd3 crtscts Since there is no initialization device special file on FreeBSD 1.1, one has to just set the flags on the sole device special file and hope the flags are not cleared by a miscreant. Modem Settings If you have a modem whose parameters may be permanently set in non-volatile RAM, you will need to use a terminal program (such as Telix under PC-DOS or tip under FreeBSD) to set the parameters. Connect to the modem using the same communications speed as the initial speed getty will use and configure the modem's non-volatile RAM to match these requirements: CD asserted when connected DTR asserted for operation; dropping DTR hangs up line & resets modem CTS transmitted data flow control Disable XON/XOFF flow control RTS received data flow control Quiet mode (no result codes) No command echo Please read the documentation for your modem to find out what commands and/or DIP switch settings you need to give it. For example, to set the above parameters on a USRobotics Sportster 14,400 external modem, one could give these commands to the modem: ATZ AT&C1&D2&H1&I0&R2&W You might also want to take this opportunity to adjust other settings in the modem, such as whether it will use V.42bis and/or MNP5 compression. The USR Sportster 14,400 external modem also has some DIP switches that need to be set; for other modems, perhaps you can use these settings as an example: Switch 1: UP — DTR Normal Switch 2: Do not care (Verbal Result Codes/Numeric Result Codes) Switch 3: UP — Suppress Result Codes Switch 4: DOWN — No echo, offline commands Switch 5: UP — Auto Answer Switch 6: UP — Carrier Detect Normal Switch 7: UP — Load NVRAM Defaults Switch 8: Do not care (Smart Mode/Dumb Mode) Result codes should be disabled/suppressed for dialup modems to avoid problems that can occur if getty mistakenly gives a login: prompt to a modem that is in command mode and the modem echoes the command or returns a result code. I have heard this sequence can result in a extended, silly conversation between getty and the modem. Locked-speed Config For a locked-speed configuration, you will need to configure the modem to maintain a constant modem-to-computer data rate independent of the communications rate. On a USR Sportster 14,400 external modem, these commands will lock the modem-to-computer data rate at the speed used to issue the commands: ATZ AT&B1&W Matching-speed Config For a variable-speed configuration, you will need to configure your modem to adjust its serial port data rate to match the incoming call rate. On a USR Sportster 14,400 external modem, these commands will lock the modem's error-corrected data rate to the speed used to issue the commands, but allow the serial port rate to vary for non-error-corrected connections: ATZ AT&B2&W Checking the Modem's Configuration Most high-speed modems provide commands to view the modem's current operating parameters in a somewhat human-readable fashion. On the USR Sportster 14,400 external modems, the command ATI5 displays the settings that are stored in the non-volatile RAM. To see the true operating parameters of the modem (as influenced by the USR's DIP switch settings), use the commands ATZ and then ATI4. If you have a different brand of modem, check your modem's manual to see how to double-check your modem's configuration parameters. Troubleshooting Here are a few steps you can follow to check out the dialup modem on your system. Checking out the FreeBSD system Hook up your modem to your FreeBSD system, boot the system, and, if your modem has status indication lights, watch to see whether the modem's DTR indicator lights when the login: prompt appears on the system's console — if it lights up, that should mean that FreeBSD has started a getty process on the appropriate communications port and is waiting for the modem to accept a call. If the DTR indicator doesn't light, login to the FreeBSD system through the console and issue a ps ax to see if FreeBSD is trying to run a getty process on the correct port. You should see a lines like this among the processes displayed: 114 ?? I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0 115 ?? I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd1 If you see something different, like this: 114 d0 I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0 and the modem has not accepted a call yet, this means that getty has completed its open on the communications port. This could indicate a problem with the cabling or a mis-configured modem, because getty should not be able to open the communications port until CD (carrier detect) has been asserted by the modem. If you do not see any getty processes waiting to open the desired ttyd? port, double-check your entries in /etc/ttys to see if there are any mistakes there. Also, check the log file /var/log/messages to see if there are any log messages from init or getty regarding any problems. If there are any messages, triple-check the configuration files /etc/ttys and /etc/gettytab, as well as the appropriate device special files /dev/ttyd?, for any mistakes, missing entries, or missing device special files. Try Dialing In Try dialing into the system; be sure to use 8 bits, no parity, 1 stop bit on the remote system. If you do not get a prompt right away, or get garbage, try pressing <Enter> about once per second. If you still do not see a login: prompt after a while, try sending a BREAK. If you are using a high-speed modem to do the dialing, try dialing again after locking the dialing modem's interface speed (via AT&B1 on a USR Sportster, for example). If you still cannot get a login: prompt, check /etc/gettytab again and double-check that The initial capability name specified in /etc/ttys for the line matches a name of a capability in /etc/gettytab Each nx= entry matches another gettytab capability name Each tc= entry matches another gettytab capability name If you dial but the modem on the FreeBSD system will not answer, make sure that the modem is configured to answer the phone when DTR is asserted. If the modem seems to be configured correctly, verify that the DTR line is asserted by checking the modem's indicator lights (if it has any). If you have gone over everything several times and it still does not work, take a break and come back to it later. If it still does not work, perhaps you can send an electronic mail message to the &a.questions;describing your modem and your problem, and the good folks on the list will try to help. Acknowledgments Thanks to these people for comments and advice: &a.kelly; for a number of good suggestions Dialout Service Information integrated from FAQ. The following are tips to getting your host to be able to connect over the modem to another computer. This is appropriate for establishing a terminal session with a remote host. This is useful to log onto a BBS. This kind of connection can be extremely helpful to get a file on the Internet if you have problems with PPP. If you need to ftp something and PPP is broken, use the terminal session to ftp it. Then use zmodem to transfer it to your machine. Why cannot I run <command>tip</command> or <command>cu</command>? On your system, the programs tip and cu are probably executable only by uucp and group dialer. You can use the group dialer to control who has access to your modem or remote systems. Just add yourself to group dialer. Alternatively, you can let everyone on your system run tip and cu by typing: &prompt.root; chmod 4511 /usr/bin/tip You do not have to run this command for cu, since cu is just a hard link to tip. My stock Hayes modem is not supported, what can I do? Actually, the man page for tip is out of date. There is a generic Hayes dialer already built in. Just use at=hayes in your /etc/remote file. The Hayes driver is not smart enough to recognize some of the advanced features of newer modems—messages like BUSY, NO DIALTONE, or CONNECT 115200 will just confuse it. You should turn those messages off when you use tip (using ATX0&W). Also, the dial timeout for tip is 60 seconds. Your modem should use something less, or else tip will think there is a communication problem. Try ATS7=45&W. Actually, as shipped tip does not yet support it fully. The solution is to edit the file tipconf.h in the directory /usr/src/usr.bin/tip/tip Obviously you need the source distribution to do this. Edit the line #define HAYES 0 to #define HAYES 1. Then make and make install. Everything works nicely after that. How am I expected to enter these AT commands? Make what is called a direct entry in your /etc/remote file. For example, if your modem is hooked up to the first serial port, /dev/cuaa0, then put in the following line: cuaa0:dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#19200:pa=none Use the highest bps rate your modem supports in the br capability. Then, type tip cuaa0 and you will be connected to your modem. If there is no /dev/cuaa0 on your system, do this: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; MAKEDEV cuaa0 Or use cu as root with the following command: &prompt.root; cu -lline -sspeed line is the serial port (e.g./dev/cuaa0) and speed is the speed (e.g.57600). When you are done entering the AT commands hit ~. to exit. The <literal>@</literal> sign for the pn capability does not work! The @ sign in the phone number capability tells tip to look in /etc/phones for a phone number. But the @ sign is also a special character in capability files like /etc/remote. Escape it with a backslash: pn=\@ How can I dial a phone number on the command line? Put what is called a generic entry in your /etc/remote file. For example: tip115200|Dial any phone number at 115200 bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#115200:at=hayes:pa=none:du: tip57600|Dial any phone number at 57600 bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du: Then you can things like: &prompt.root; tip -115200 5551234 If you prefer cu over tip, use a generic cu entry: cu115200|Use cu to dial any number at 115200bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa1:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du: and type: &prompt.root; cu 5551234 -s 115200 Do I have to type in the bps rate every time I do that? Put in an entry for tip1200 or cu1200, but go ahead and use whatever bps rate is appropriate with the br capability. tip thinks a good default is 1200 bps which is why it looks for a tip1200 entry. You do not have to use 1200 bps, though. I access a number of hosts through a terminal server. Rather than waiting until you are connected and typing CONNECT <host> each time, use tip's cm capability. For example, these entries in /etc/remote: pain|pain.deep13.com|Forrester's machine:\ :cm=CONNECT pain\n:tc=deep13: muffin|muffin.deep13.com|Frank's machine:\ :cm=CONNECT muffin\n:tc=deep13: deep13:Gizmonics Institute terminal server:\ :dv=/dev/cua02:br#38400:at=hayes:du:pa=none:pn=5551234: will let you type tip pain or tip muffin to connect to the hosts pain or muffin; and tip deep13 to get to the terminal server. Can tip try more than one line for each site? This is often a problem where a university has several modem lines and several thousand students trying to use them... Make an entry for your university in /etc/remote and use @ for the pn capability: big-university:\ :pn=\@:tc=dialout dialout:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa3:br#9600:at=courier:du:pa=none: Then, list the phone numbers for the university in /etc/phones: big-university 5551111 big-university 5551112 big-university 5551113 big-university 5551114 tip will try each one in the listed order, then give up. If you want to keep retrying, run tip in a while loop. Why do I have to hit CTRL+P twice to send CTRL+P once? CTRL+P is the default force character, used to tell tip that the next character is literal data. You can set the force character to any other character with the ~s escape, which means set a variable. Type ~sforce=single-char followed by a newline. single-char is any single character. If you leave out single-char, then the force character is the nul character, which you can get by typing CTRL+2 or CTRL+SPACE. A pretty good value for single-char is SHIFT+CTRL+6, which I have seen only used on some terminal servers. You can have the force character be whatever you want by specifying the following in your $HOME/.tiprc file: force=<single-char> Suddenly everything I type is in UPPER CASE?? You must have pressed CTRL+A, tip's raise character, specially designed for people with broken caps-lock keys. Use ~s as above and set the variable raisechar to something reasonable. In fact, you can set it to the same as the force character, if you never expect to use either of these features. Here is a sample .tiprc file perfect for Emacs users who need to type CTRL+2 and CTRL+A a lot: force=^^ raisechar=^^ The ^^ is SHIFT+CTRL+6. How can I do file transfers with <command>tip</command>? If you are talking to another UNIX system, you can send and receive files with ~p (put) and ~t (take). These commands run cat and echo on the remote system to accept and send files. The syntax is: ~p local-file remote-file ~t remote-file local-file There is no error checking, so you probably should use another protocol, like zmodem. How can I run zmodem with <command>tip</command>? To receive files, start the sending program on the remote end. Then, type ~C rz to begin receiving them locally. To send files, start the receiving program on the remote end. Then, type ~C sz files to send them to the remote system. PPP and SLIP If your connection to the Internet is through a modem, or you wish to provide other people with dialup connections to the Internet using FreeBSD, you have the option of using PPP or SLIP. Furthermore, two varieties of PPP are provided: user (sometimes referred to as iijppp) and kernel. The procedures for configuring both types of PPP, and for setting up SLIP are described in this chapter. Setting up User PPP User PPP was introduced to FreeBSD in release 2.0.5 as an addition to the existing kernel implementation of PPP. So, what is different about this new PPP that warrants its addition? To quote from the manual page:
This is a user process PPP software package. Normally, PPP is implemented as a part of the kernel (e.g. as managed by pppd) and it is thus somewhat hard to debug and/or modify its behavior. However, in this implementation PPP is done as a user process with the help of the tunnel device driver (tun).
In essence, this means that rather than running a PPP daemon, the ppp program can be run as and when desired. No PPP interface needs to be compiled into the kernel, as the program can use the generic tunnel device to get data into and out of the kernel. From here on out, user ppp will be referred to simply as ppp unless a distinction needs to be made between it and any other PPP client/server software such as pppd. Unless otherwise stated, all commands in this section should be executed as root. Before you start This document assumes you are in roughly this position: You have an account with an Internet Service Provider (ISP) which lets you use PPP. Further, you have a modem (or other device) connected and configured correctly which allows you to connect to your ISP. You are going to need the following information to hand: Your ISPs phone number(s). Your login name and password. This can be either a regular unix style login/password pair, or a PPP PAP or CHAP login/password pair. The IP address of your ISP's gateway. The gateway is the machine to which you will connect and will be set up as your default route. If your ISP hasn't given you this number, don't worry. We can make one up and your ISP's PPP server will tell us when we connect. This number is known from now on as HISADDR. Your ISP's netmask setting. Again, if your ISP hasn't given you this information, you can safely use a netmask of 255.255.255.0. The IP addresses of one or more nameservers. Normally, you will be given two IP numbers. You must have this information unless you run your own nameserver. If your ISP allocates you a static IP address and hostname then you will need this information too. If not, you will need to know from what range of IP addresses your allocated IP address will belong. If you haven't been given this range, don't worry. You can configure ppp to accept any IP number (as explained later). If you do not have any of the required information, contact your ISP and make sure they provide it to you. Building a ppp ready kernel As the description states, ppp uses the kernel tun device. It is necessary to make sure that your kernel has support for this device compiled in. To check this, go to your kernel compile directory (/sys/i386/conf or /sys/pc98/conf) and examine your kernel configuration file. It needs to have the line pseudo-device tun 1 in it somewhere. The stock GENERIC kernel has this as standard, so if you have not installed a custom kernel or you do not have a /sys directory, you do not have to change anything. If your kernel configuration file does not have this line in it, or you need to configure more than one tun device (for example, if you are setting up a server and could have 16 dialup ppp connections at any one time then you will need to use 16 instead of 1), then you should add the line, re-compile, re-install and boot the new kernel. Please refer to the section for more information on kernel configuration. You can check how many tunnel devices your current kernel has by typing the following: &prompt.root; ifconfig -a tun0: flags=8051<UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 inet 200.10.100.1 --> 203.10.100.24 netmask 0xffffffff tun1: flags=8050<POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 576 tun2: flags=8051<UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 inet 203.10.100.1 --> 203.10.100.20 netmask 0xffffffff tun3: flags=8050<POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 This case shows four tunnel devices, two of which are currently configured and being used. If you have a kernel without the tun device, and you can not rebuild it for some reason, all is not lost. You should be able to dynamically load the code. Refer to the appropriate modload8 and lkm4 pages for further details. You may also wish to take this opportunity to configure a firewall. Details can be found in the section. Check the tun device Most users will only require one tun device (/dev/tun0). If you have used more (i.e., a number other than 1 in the pseudo-device line in the kernel configuration file) then alter all references to tun0 below to reflect whichever device number you are using. The easiest way to make sure that the tun0 device is configured correctly is to re-make it. To do this, execute the following commands: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV tun0 If you require 16 tunnel devices in your kernel, you will need to create more than just tun0: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV tun15 Also, to confirm that the kernel is configured correctly, the following command should give the indicated output: &prompt.root; ifconfig tun0 tun0: flags=8050<POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 Name Resolution Configuration The resolver is the part of the system that turns IP addresses into hostnames and vice versa. It can be configured to look for maps that describe IP to hostname mappings in one of two places. The first is a file called /etc/hosts (man 5 hosts). The second is the Internet Domain Name Service (DNS), a distributed data base, the discussion of which is beyond the scope of this document. This section describes briefly how to configure your resolver. The resolver is a set of system calls that do the name mappings, but you have to tell them where to find their information. You do this by first editing the file /etc/host.conf. Do not call this file /etc/hosts.conf (note the extra s) as the results can be confusing. Edit the <filename>/etc/host.conf</filename> file This file should contain the following two lines: hosts bind These instructs the resolver to first look in the file /etc/hosts, and then to consult the DNS if the name was not found. Edit the <filename>/etc/hosts</filename>(5) file This file should contain the IP addresses and names of machines on your network. At a bare minimum it should contain entries for the machine which will be running ppp. Assuming that your machine is called foo.bar.com with the IP address 10.0.0.1, /etc/hosts should contain: 127.0.0.1 localhost 10.0.0.1 foo.bar.com foo The first line defines the alias localhost as a synonym for the current machine. Regardless of your own IP address, the IP address for this line should always be 127.0.0.1. The second line maps the name foo.bar.com (and the shorthand foo) to the IP address 10.0.0.1. If your provider allocates you a static IP address and name, then use these in place of the 10.0.0.1 entry. Edit the <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename> file /etc/resolv.conf tells the resolver how to behave. If you are running your own DNS, you may leave this file empty. Normally, you will need to enter the following line(s): nameserver x.x.x.x nameserver y.y.y.y domain bar.com The x.x.x.x and y.y.y.y addresses are those given to you by your ISP. Add as many nameserver lines as your ISP provides. The domain line defaults to your hostname's domain, and is probably unnecessary. Refer to the resolv.conf manual page for details of other possible entries in this file. <command>ppp</command> Configuration Both user ppp and pppd (the kernel level implementation of PPP) use configuration files located in the /etc/ppp directory. The sample configuration files provided are a good reference for user ppp, so don't delete them. Configuring ppp requires that you edit a number of files, depending on your requirements. What you put in them depends to some extent on whether your ISP allocates IP addresses statically (i.e., you get given one IP address, and always use that one) or dynamically (i.e., your IP address can be different for each PPP session). PPP and Static IP addresses You will need to create a configuration file called /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. It should look similar to the example below. Lines that end in a : start in the first column, all other lines should be indented as shown using spaces or tabs. 1 default: 2 set device /dev/cuaa0 3 set speed 115200 4 set dial "ABORT BUSY ABORT NO\\sCARRIER TIMEOUT 5 \"\" ATE1Q0 OK-AT-OK \\dATDT\\TTIMEOUT 40 CONNECT" 5 provider: 6 set phone "(0123) 456 7890" 7 set login "TIMEOUT 10 gin:-BREAK-gin: foo word: bar col: ppp" 8 set timeout 300 9 deny lqr 10 set ifaddr x.x.x.x y.y.y.y 11 delete ALL 12 add 0 0 HISADDR Do not include the line numbers, they are just for reference in this discussion. Line 1: Identifies the default entry. Commands in this entry are executed automatically when ppp is run. Line 2: Identifies the device to which the modem is connected. COM1: is /dev/cuaa0 and COM2: is /dev/cuaa1. Line 3: Sets the speed you want to connect at. If 115200 doesn't work (it should with any reasonably new modem), try 38400 instead. Line 4: The dial string. User PPP uses an expect-send syntax similar to the chat8 program. Refer to the manual page for information on the features of this language. Line 5: Identifies an entry for a provider called provider. Line 6: Sets the phone number for this provider. Multiple phone numbers may be specified using the : or | character as a separator. The difference between these spearators is described in the ppp manual page. To summarize, if you want to rotate through the numbers, use the :. If you want to always attempt to dial the first number first and only use the other numbers if the first number fails, use the |. Always quote the entire set of phone numbers as shown. Line 7: The login string is of the same chat-like syntax as the dial string. In this example, the string works for a service whose login session looks like this: J. Random Provider login: foo password: bar protocol: ppp You will need to alter this script to suit your own needs. If you're using PAP or CHAP, there will be no login at this point, so your login string can be left blank. See for further details. Line 8: Sets the default timeout (in seconds) for the connection. Here, the connection will be closed automatically after 300 seconds of inactivity. If you never want to timeout, set this value to zero. Line 9: ppp can be configured to exchange Link Quality Report (LQR) packets. These packets describe how good the physical link is. ppp's LQR strategy is to close the connection when a number of these packets are missed. This is useful when you have a direct serial link to another machine and the DSR modem signal is not available to indicate that the line is up. When data saturates the line, LQR packets are sometimes missed, causing ppp to close the connection prematurely. Refusing to negotiate lqr is sometimes prudent (if you are going through a modem) as it avoids this whole mess. By default, ppp will not attempt to negotiate LQR, but will accept LQR negotiation from the peer. Line 10: Sets the interface addresses. The string x.x.x.x should be replaced by the IP address that your provider has allocated to you. The string y.y.y.y should be replaced by the IP address that your ISP indicated for their gateway (the machine to which you connect). If your ISP hasn't given you a gateway address, use 10.0.0.2/0. If you need to use a guessed address, make sure that you create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup as per the instructions for . If this line is omitted, ppp cannot run in or mode. Line 11: Deletes all existing routing table entries for the acquired tun device. This should not normally be necessary, but will make sure that ppp is starting with a clean bill of health. Line 12: Adds a default route to your ISPs gateway. The special word HISADDR is replaced with the gateway address specified on line 9. It is important that this line appears after line 9, otherwise HISADDR will not yet be initialized. It is not necessary to add an entry to ppp.linkup when you have a static IP address as your routing table entries are already correct before you connect. You may however wish to create an entry to invoke programs after connection. This is explained later with the sendmail example. Example configuration files can be found in the /etc/ppp directory. PPP and Dynamic IP addresses If your service provider does not assign static IP numbers, ppp can be configured to negotiate the local and remote addresses. This is done by guessing an IP number and allowing ppp to set it up correctly using the IP Configuration Protocol (IPCP) after connecting. The ppp.conf configuration is the same as , with the following change: 10 set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0 255.255.255.0 Again, do not include the line numbers, they are just for reference in this discussion. Indentation of at least one space is required. Line 10: The number after the / character is the number of bits of the address that ppp will insist on. You may wish to use IP numbers more appropriate to your circumstances, but the above example will almost always work. If it fails, you may be able to defeat some broken ppp implementations by supplying an additional 0.0.0.0 argument: set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0 255.255.255.0 0.0.0.0 This tells ppp to negotiate using address 0.0.0.0 rather than 10.0.0.1. Do not use 0.0.0.0/0 as the first argument to set ifaddr as it prevents ppp from setting up an initial route in and mode. You will also need to create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. ppp.linkup is used after a connection has been established. At this point, ppp will know what IP addresses should really be used. The following entry will delete the existing bogus routes, and create correct ones: 1 provider: 2 delete ALL 3 add 0 0 HISADDR Line 1: On establishing a connection, ppp will look for an entry in ppp.linkup according to the following rules: First, try to match the same label as we used in ppp.conf. If that fails, look for an entry for the IP number of our gateway. This entry is a four-octet IP style label. If we still haven't found an entry, look for the MYADDR entry. Line 2: This line tells ppp to delete all existing routes for the acquired tun interface (except the direct route entry). Line 3: This line tells ppp to add a default route that points to HISADDR. HISADDR will be replaced with the IP number of the gateway as negotiated in the IPCP. See the pmdemand entry in the files /etc/ppp/ppp.conf.sample and /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup.sample for a detailed example. Receiving incoming calls with <command>ppp</command> This section describes setting up ppp in a server role. When you configure ppp to receive incoming calls, you must decide whether you wish to forward packets for just PPP connections, for all interfaces, or not at all. To forward for just PPP connections, include the line enable proxy in your ppp.conf file. If you wish to forward packets on all interfaces, use the gateway=YES option in /etc/rc.conf (this file used to be called /etc/sysconfig). Which getty? provides a good description on enabling dialup services using getty. An alternative to getty is mgetty, a smarter version of getty designed with dialup lines in mind. The advantages of using mgetty is that it actively talks to modems, meaning if port is turned off in /etc/ttys then your modem won't answer the phone. Later versions of mgetty (from 0.99beta onwards) also support the automatic detection of PPP streams, allowing your clients script-less access to your server. Refer to for more information on mgetty. PPP permissions ppp must normally be run as user id 0. If however you wish to allow ppp to run in server mode as a normal user by executing ppp as described below, that user must be given permission to run ppp by adding them to the network group in /etc/group. Setting up a PPP shell for dynamic-IP users Create a file called /etc/ppp/ppp-shell containing the following: #!/bin/sh IDENT=`echo $0 | sed -e 's/^.*-\(.*\)$/\1/'` CALLEDAS="$IDENT" TTY=`tty` if [ x$IDENT = xdialup ]; then IDENT=`basename $TTY` fi echo "PPP for $CALLEDAS on $TTY" echo "Starting PPP for $IDENT" exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct $IDENT This script should be executable. Now make a symbolic link called ppp-dialup to this script using the following commands: &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-dialup You should use this script as the shell for all your dialup ppp users. This is an example from /etc/password for a dialup PPP user with username pchilds. (remember don't directly edit the password file, use vipw) pchilds:*:1011:300:Peter Childs PPP:/home/ppp:/etc/ppp/ppp-dialup Create a /home/ppp directory that is world readable containing the following 0 byte files -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 0 May 27 02:23 .hushlogin -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 0 May 27 02:22 .rhosts which prevents /etc/motd from being displayed. Setting up a PPP shell for static-IP users Create the ppp-shell file as above and for each account with statically assigned IPs create a symbolic link to ppp-shell. For example, if you have three dialup customers fred, sam, and mary, that you route class C networks for, you would type the following: &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-fred &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-sam &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-mary Each of these users dialup accounts should have their shell set to the symbolic link created above. (ie. mary's shell should be /etc/ppp/ppp-mary). Setting up ppp.conf for dynamic-IP users The /etc/ppp/ppp.conf file should contain something along the lines of default: set debug phase lcp chat set timeout 0 ttyd0: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20 255.255.255.255 enable proxy ttyd1: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.21 255.255.255.255 enable proxy The indenting is important. The default: section is loaded for each session. For each dialup line enabled in /etc/ttys create an entry similar to the one for ttyd0: above. Each line should get a unique IP address from your pool of IP addresses for dynamic users. Setting up <filename>ppp.conf</filename> for static-IP users Along with the contents of the sample /etc/ppp/ppp.conf above you should add a section for each of the statically assigned dialup users. We will continue with our fred, sam, and mary example. fred: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.101.1 255.255.255.255 sam: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.102.1 255.255.255.255 mary: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.103.1 255.255.255.255 The file /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup should also contain routing information for each static IP user if required. The line below would add a route for the 203.14.101.0 class C via the client's ppp link. fred: add 203.14.101.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR sam: add 203.14.102.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR mary: add 203.14.103.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR More on <command>mgetty</command>, AutoPPP, and MS extensions <command>mgetty</command> and AutoPPP Configuring and compiling mgetty with the AUTO_PPP option enabled allows mgetty to detect the LCP phase of PPP connections and automatically spawn off a ppp shell. However, since the default login/password sequence does not occur it is necessary to authenticate users using either PAP or CHAP. This section assumes the user has successfully configured, compiled, and installed a version of mgetty with the AUTO_PPP option (v0.99beta or later) Make sure your /usr/local/etc/mgetty+sendfax/login.config file has the following in it: /AutoPPP/ - - /etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup This will tell mgetty to run the ppp-pap-dialup script for detected PPP connections. Create a file called /etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup containing the following (the file should be executable): #!/bin/sh TTY=`tty` IDENT=`basename $TTY` exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct pap$IDENT For each dialup line enabled in /etc/ttys create a corresponding entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. This will happily co-exist with the definitions we created above. papttyd0: enable pap set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20 255.255.255.255 enable proxy papttyd1: enable pap set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.21 255.255.255.255 enable proxy Each user logging in with this method will need to have a username/password in /etc/ppp/ppp.secret file, or alternatively add the enable passwdauth option to authenticate users via pap from the /etc/passwordd file(*) Note this option only available in 2.2-961014-SNAP or later, or by getting the updated ppp code for 2.1.x. (see MS extensions below for details) . MS extentions From 2.2-961014-SNAP onwards it is possible to allow the automatic negotiation of DNS and NetBIOS name servers with clients supporting this feature (namely Win95/NT clients). See RFC1877 for more details on the protocol. An example of enabling these extensions in your /etc/ppp/ppp.conf file is illustrated below. default: set debug phase lcp chat set timeout 0 enable msext set ns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2 set nbns 203.14.100.5 This will tell the clients the primary and secondary name server addresses, and a netbios nameserver host. PAP and CHAP authentication Some ISPs set their system up so that the authentication part of your connection is done using either of the PAP or CHAP authentication mechanisms. If this is the case, your ISP will not give a login: prompt when you connect, but will start talking PPP immediately. PAP is less secure than CHAP, but security is not normally an issue here as passwords, although being sent as plain text with PAP, are being transmitted down a serial line only. There's not much room for hackers to eavesdrop. Referring back to the or sections, the following alterations must be made: 7 set login … 13 set authname MyUserName 14 set authkey MyPassword As always, do not include the line numbers, they are just for reference in this discussion. Indentation of at least one space is required. Line 7: Your ISP will not normally require that you log into the server if you're using PAP or CHAP. You must therefore disable your "set login" string. Line 13: This line specifies your PAP/CHAP user name. You will need to insert the correct value for MyUserName. Line 14: This line specifies your PAP/CHAP password. You will need to insert the correct value for MyPassword. You may want to add an additional line 15 accept PAP or 15 accept CHAP to make it obvious that this is the intention, but PAP and CHAP are accepted by default. Your authkey will be logged if you have command logging turned on (set log +command). Care should be taken when deciding the ppp log file permissions. Changing your <command>ppp</command> configuration on the fly It is possible to talk to the ppp program while it is running in the background, but only if a suitable password has been set up. By default, ppp will listen to a TCP port of 3000 + tunno, where tunno is the number of the tun device acquired, however, if a password for the local machine is not set up in /etc/ppp/ppp.secret, no server connection will be created. To set your password, put the following line in /etc/ppp/ppp.secret: foo MyPassword foo is your local hostname (run hostname -s to determine the correct name), and MyPassword is the unencrypted password that you wish to use. /etc/ppp/ppp.secret should not be accessable by anyone without user id 0. This means that /, /etc and /etc/ppp should not be writable, and ppp.secret should be owned by user id 0 and have permissions 0600. It is also possible to select a specific port number or to have ppp listen to a local unix domain socket rather than to a TCP socket. Refer to the set socket command in manual page for further details. Once a socket has been set up, the pppctl8 program may be used in scripts that wish to manipulate the running program. Final system configuration You now have ppp configured, but there are a few more things to do before it is ready to work. They all involve editing the /etc/rc.conf file (was /etc/sysconfig). Working from the top down in this file, make sure the hostname= line is set, e.g.: hostname=foo.bar.com If your ISP has supplied you with a static IP address and name, it's probably best that you use this name as your host name. Look for the network_interfaces variable. If you want to configure your system to dial your ISP on demand, make sure the tun0 device is added to the list, otherwise remove it. network_interfaces="lo0 tun0" ifconfig_tun0= The ifconfig_tun0 variable should be empty, and a file called /etc/start_if.tun0 should be created. This file should contain the line ppp -auto mysystem This script is executed at network configuration time, starting your ppp daemon in automatic mode. If you have a LAN for which this machine is a gateway, you may also wish to use the switch. Refer to the manual page for further details. Set the router program to NO with the line router_enable=NO (/etc/rc.conf) router=NO (/etc/sysconfig) It is important that the routed daemon is not started (it's started by default) as routed tends to delete the default routing table entries created by ppp. It is probably worth your while ensuring that the sendmail_flags line does not include the option, otherwise sendmail will attempt to do a network lookup every now and then, possibly causing your machine to dial out. You may try: sendmail_flags="-bd" The upshot of this is that you must force sendmail to re-examine the mail queue whenever the ppp link is up by typing: &prompt.root; /usr/sbin/sendmail -q You may wish to use the !bg command in ppp.linkup to do this automatically: 1 provider: 2 delete ALL 3 add 0 0 HISADDR 4 !bg sendmail -bd -q30m If you don't like this, it is possible to set up a dfilter to block SMTP traffic. Refer to the sample files for further details. All that is left is to reboot the machine. After rebooting, you can now either type &prompt.root; ppp and then dial provider to start the PPP session, or, if you want ppp to establish sessions automatically when there is outbound traffic (and you haven't created the start_if.tun0 script), type &prompt.root; ppp -auto provider Summary To recap, the following steps are necessary when setting up ppp for the first time: Client side: Ensure that the tun device is built into your kernel. Ensure that the tunX device file is available in the /dev directory. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. The pmdemand example should suffice for most ISPs. If you have a dynamic IP address, create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. Update your /etc/rc.conf (or sysconfig) file. Create a start_if.tun0 script if you require demand dialing. Server side: Ensure that the tun device is built into your kernel. Ensure that the tunX device file is available in the /dev directory. Create an entry in /etc/passwd (using the vipw8 program). Create a profile in this users home directory that runs ppp -direct direct-server or similar. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. The direct-server example should suffice. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. Update your /etc/rc.conf (or sysconfig) file. Acknowledgments This section of the handbook was last updated on Sun Sep 7, 1997 by &a.brian; Thanks to the following for their input, comments & suggestions: &a.nik; &a.dirkvangulik; &a.pjc; Setting up Kernel PPP Contributed by &a.gena;. Before you start setting up PPP on your machine make sure that pppd is located in /usr/sbin and directory /etc/ppp exists. pppd can work in two modes: as a client, i.e. you want to connect your machine to outside world via PPP serial connection or modem line. as a server, i.e. your machine is located on the network and used to connect other computers using PPP. In both cases you will need to set up an options file (/etc/ppp/options or ~/.ppprc if you have more then one user on your machine that uses PPP). You also will need some modem/serial software (preferably kermit) so you can dial and establish connection with remote host. Working as a PPP client I used the following /etc/ppp/options to connect to CISCO terminal server PPP line. crtscts # enable hardware flow control modem # modem control line noipdefault # remote PPP server must supply your IP address. # if the remote host doesn't send your IP during IPCP # negotiation , remove this option passive # wait for LCP packets domain ppp.foo.com # put your domain name here :<remote_ip> # put the IP of remote PPP host here # it will be used to route packets via PPP link # if you didn't specified the noipdefault option # change this line to <local_ip>:<remote_ip> defaultroute # put this if you want that PPP server will be your # default router To connect: Dial to the remote host using kermit (or other modem program) enter your user name and password (or whatever is needed to enable PPP on the remote host) Exit kermit (without hanging up the line). enter: &prompt.root; /usr/src/usr.sbin/pppd.new/pppd /dev/tty01 19200 Use the appropriate speed and device name. Now your computer is connected with PPP. If the connection fails for some reasons you can add the option to the /etc/ppp/options file and check messages on the console to track the problem Following /etc/ppp/pppup script will make all 3 stages automatically: #!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.dial pppd /dev/tty01 19200 /etc/ppp/kermit.dial is kermit script that dials and makes all necessary authorization on the remote host. (Example of such script is attached to the end of this document) Use the following /etc/ppp/pppdown script to disconnect the PPP line: #!/bin/sh pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ X${pid} != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill -TERM ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi /sbin/ifconfig ppp0 down /sbin/ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.hup /etc/ppp/ppptest Check if PPP is still running (/usr/etc/ppp/ppptest): #!/bin/sh pid=`ps ax| grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ X${pid} != "X" ] ; then echo 'pppd running: PID=' ${pid-NONE} else echo 'No pppd running.' fi set -x netstat -n -I ppp0 ifconfig ppp0 Hangs up modem line (/etc/ppp/kermit.hup): set line /dev/tty01 ; put your modem device here set speed 19200 set file type binary set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none pau 1 out +++ inp 5 OK out ATH0\13 echo \13 exit Here is an alternate method using chat instead of kermit. Contributed by &a.rhuff;. The following two files are sufficient to accomplish a pppd connection. /etc/ppp/options: /dev/cuaa1 115200 crtscts # enable hardware flow control modem # modem control line connect "/usr/bin/chat -f /etc/ppp/login.chat.script" noipdefault # remote PPP serve must supply your IP address. # if the remote host doesn't send your IP during # IPCP negotiation, remove this option passive # wait for LCP packets domain <your.domain> # put your domain name here : # put the IP of remote PPP host here # it will be used to route packets via PPP link # if you didn't specified the noipdefault option # change this line to <local_ip>:<remote_ip> defaultroute # put this if you want that PPP server will be # your default router /etc/ppp/login.chat.script: (This should actually go into a single line.) ABORT BUSY ABORT 'NO CARRIER' "" AT OK ATDT<phone.number> CONNECT "" TIMEOUT 10 ogin:-\\r-ogin: <login-id> TIMEOUT 5 sword: <password> Once these are installed and modified correctly, all you need to do is &prompt.root; pppd This sample based primarily on information provided by: Trev Roydhouse <Trev.Roydhouse@f401.n711.z3.fidonet.org> and used by permission. Working as a PPP server /etc/ppp/options: crtscts # Hardware flow control netmask 255.255.255.0 # netmask ( not required ) 192.114.208.20:192.114.208.165 # ip's of local and remote hosts # local ip must be different from one # you assigned to the ethernet ( or other ) # interface on your machine. # remote IP is ip address that will be # assigned to the remote machine domain ppp.foo.com # your domain passive # wait for LCP modem # modem line Following /etc/ppp/pppserv script will enable ppp server on your machine: #!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi # reset ppp interface ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete # enable autoanswer mode kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.ans # run ppp pppd /dev/tty01 19200 Use this /etc/ppp/pppservdown script to stop ppp server: #!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.noans Following kermit script will enable/disable autoanswer mode on your modem (/etc/ppp/kermit.ans): set line /dev/tty01 set speed 19200 set file type binary set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none pau 1 out +++ inp 5 OK out ATH0\13 inp 5 OK echo \13 out ATS0=1\13 ; change this to out ATS0=0\13 if you want to disable ; autoanswer mod inp 5 OK echo \13 exit This /etc/ppp/kermit.dial script is used for dialing and authorizing on remote host. You will need to customize it for your needs. Put your login and password in this script, also you will need to change input statement depending on responses from your modem and remote host. ; ; put the com line attached to the modem here: ; set line /dev/tty01 ; ; put the modem speed here: ; set speed 19200 set file type binary ; full 8 bit file xfer set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none set modem hayes set dial hangup off set carrier auto ; Then SET CARRIER if necessary, set dial display on ; Then SET DIAL if necessary, set input echo on set input timeout proceed set input case ignore def \%x 0 ; login prompt counter goto slhup :slcmd ; put the modem in command mode echo Put the modem in command mode. clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer pause 1 output +++ ; hayes escape sequence input 1 OK\13\10 ; wait for OK if success goto slhup output \13 pause 1 output at\13 input 1 OK\13\10 if fail goto slcmd ; if modem doesn't answer OK, try again :slhup ; hang up the phone clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer pause 1 echo Hanging up the phone. output ath0\13 ; hayes command for on hook input 2 OK\13\10 if fail goto slcmd ; if no OK answer, put modem in command mode :sldial ; dial the number pause 1 echo Dialing. output atdt9,550311\13\10 ; put phone number here assign \%x 0 ; zero the time counter :look clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer increment \%x ; Count the seconds input 1 {CONNECT } if success goto sllogin reinput 1 {NO CARRIER\13\10} if success goto sldial reinput 1 {NO DIALTONE\13\10} if success goto slnodial reinput 1 {\255} if success goto slhup reinput 1 {\127} if success goto slhup if < \%x 60 goto look else goto slhup :sllogin ; login assign \%x 0 ; zero the time counter pause 1 echo Looking for login prompt. :slloop increment \%x ; Count the seconds clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer output \13 ; ; put your expected login prompt here: ; input 1 {Username: } if success goto sluid reinput 1 {\255} if success goto slhup reinput 1 {\127} if success goto slhup if < \%x 10 goto slloop ; try 10 times to get a login prompt else goto slhup ; hang up and start again if 10 failures :sluid ; ; put your userid here: ; output ppp-login\13 input 1 {Password: } ; ; put your password here: ; output ppp-password\13 input 1 {Entering SLIP mode.} echo quit :slnodial echo \7No dialtone. Check the telephone line!\7 exit 1 ; local variables: ; mode: csh ; comment-start: "; " ; comment-start-skip: "; " ; end: Setting up a SLIP Client Contributed by &a.asami;8 Aug 1995. The following is one way to set up a FreeBSD machine for SLIP on a static host network. For dynamic hostname assignments (i.e., your address changes each time you dial up), you probably need to do something much fancier. First, determine which serial port your modem is connected to. I have a symbolic link to /dev/modem from /dev/cuaa1, and only use the modem name in my configuration files. It can become quite cumbersome when you need to fix a bunch of files in /etc and .kermrc's all over the system! /dev/cuaa0 is COM1, cuaa1 is COM2, etc. Make sure you have pseudo-device sl 1 in your kernel's config file. It is included in the GENERIC kernel, so this will not be a problem unless you deleted it. Things you have to do only once Add your home machine, the gateway and nameservers to your /etc/hosts file. Mine looks like this: 127.0.0.1 localhost loghost 136.152.64.181 silvia.HIP.Berkeley.EDU silvia.HIP silvia 136.152.64.1 inr-3.Berkeley.EDU inr-3 slip-gateway 128.32.136.9 ns1.Berkeley.edu ns1 128.32.136.12 ns2.Berkeley.edu ns2 By the way, silvia is the name of the car that I had when I was back in Japan (it is called 2?0SX here in U.S.). Make sure you have before in your /etc/host.conf. Otherwise, funny things may happen. Edit the file /etc/rc.conf. Note that you should edit the file /etc/sysconfig instead if you are running FreeBSD previous to version 2.2.2. Set your hostname by editing the line that says: hostname=myname.my.domain You should give it your full Internet hostname. Add sl0 to the list of network interfaces by changing the line that says: network_interfaces="lo0" to: network_interfaces="lo0 sl0" Set the startup flags of sl0 by adding a line: ifconfig_sl0="inet ${hostname} slip-gateway netmask 0xffffff00 up" Designate the default router by changing the line: defaultrouter=NO to: defaultrouter=slip-gateway Make a file /etc/resolv.conf which contains: domain HIP.Berkeley.EDU nameserver 128.32.136.9 nameserver 128.32.136.12 As you can see, these set up the nameserver hosts. Of course, the actual domain names and addresses depend on your environment. Set the password for root and toor (and any other accounts that does not have a password). Use passwd, do not edit the /etc/passwd or /etc/master.passwd files! Reboot your machine and make sure it comes up with the correct hostname. Making a SLIP connection Dial up, type slip at the prompt, enter your machine name and password. The things you need to enter depends on your environment. I use kermit, with a script like this: # kermit setup set modem hayes set line /dev/modem set speed 115200 set parity none set flow rts/cts set terminal bytesize 8 set file type binary # The next macro will dial up and login define slip dial 643-9600, input 10 =>, if failure stop, - output slip\x0d, input 10 Username:, if failure stop, - output silvia\x0d, input 10 Password:, if failure stop, - output ***\x0d, echo \x0aCONNECTED\x0a (of course, you have to change the hostname and password to fit yours). Then you can just type slip from the kermit prompt to get connected. Leaving your password in plain text anywhere in the filesystem is generally a BAD idea. Do it at your own risk. I am just too lazy. Leave the kermit there (you can suspend it by z) and as root, type: &prompt.root; slattach -h -c -s 115200 /dev/modem If you are able to ping hosts on the other side of the router, you are connected! If it does not work, you might want to try instead of as an argument to slattach. How to shutdown the connection Type &prompt.root; kill -INT `cat /var/run/slattach.modem.pid` (as root) to kill slattach. Then go back to kermit (fg if you suspended it) and exit from it (q). The slattach man page says you have to use ifconfig sl0 down to mark the interface down, but this does not seem to make any difference for me. (ifconfig sl0 reports the same thing.) Some times, your modem might refuse to drop the carrier (mine often does). In that case, simply start kermit and quit it again. It usually goes out on the second try. Troubleshooting If it does not work, feel free to ask me. The things that people tripped over so far: Not using or in slattach (I have no idea why this can be fatal, but adding this flag solved the problem for at least one person) Using instead of (might be hard to see the difference on some fonts). Try ifconfig sl0 to see your interface status. I get: &prompt.root; ifconfig sl0 sl0: flags=10<POINTOPOINT> inet 136.152.64.181 --> 136.152.64.1 netmask ffffff00 Also, netstat -r will give the routing table, in case you get the "no route to host" messages from ping. Mine looks like: &prompt.root; netstat -r Routing tables Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use IfaceMTU Rtt Netmasks: (root node) (root node) Route Tree for Protocol Family inet: (root node) => default inr-3.Berkeley.EDU UG 8 224515 sl0 - - localhost.Berkel localhost.Berkeley UH 5 42127 lo0 - 0.438 inr-3.Berkeley.E silvia.HIP.Berkele UH 1 0 sl0 - - silvia.HIP.Berke localhost.Berkeley UGH 34 47641234 lo0 - 0.438 (root node) (this is after transferring a bunch of files, your numbers should be smaller). Setting up a SLIP Server Contributed by &a.ghelmer;. v1.0, 15 May 1995. This document provides suggestions for setting up SLIP Server services on a FreeBSD system, which typically means configuring your system to automatically startup connections upon login for remote SLIP clients. The author has written this document based on his experience; however, as your system and needs may be different, this document may not answer all of your questions, and the author cannot be responsible if you damage your system or lose data due to attempting to follow the suggestions here. This guide was originally written for SLIP Server services on a FreeBSD 1.x system. It has been modified to reflect changes in the pathnames and the removal of the SLIP interface compression flags in early versions of FreeBSD 2.X, which appear to be the only major changes between FreeBSD versions. If you do encounter mistakes in this document, please email the author with enough information to help correct the problem. Prerequisites This document is very technical in nature, so background knowledge is required. It is assumed that you are familiar with the TCP/IP network protocol, and in particular, network and node addressing, network address masks, subnetting, routing, and routing protocols, such as RIP. Configuring SLIP services on a dial-up server requires a knowledge of these concepts, and if you are not familiar with them, please read a copy of either Craig Hunt's TCP/IP Network Administration published by O'Reilly & Associates, Inc. (ISBN Number 0-937175-82-X), or Douglas Comer's books on the TCP/IP protocol. It is further assumed that you have already setup your modem(s) and configured the appropriate system files to allow logins through your modems. If you have not prepared your system for this yet, please see the tutorial for configuring dialup services; if you have a World-Wide Web browser available, browse the list of tutorials at http://www.freebsd.org/; otherwise, check the place where you found this document for a document named dialup.txt or something similar. You may also want to check the manual pages for sio4 for information on the serial port device driver and ttys5, gettytab5, getty8, & init8 for information relevant to configuring the system to accept logins on modems, and perhaps stty1 for information on setting serial port parameters (such as clocal for directly-connected serial interfaces). Quick Overview In its typical configuration, using FreeBSD as a SLIP server works as follows: a SLIP user dials up your FreeBSD SLIP Server system and logs in with a special SLIP login ID that uses /usr/sbin/sliplogin as the special user's shell. The sliplogin program browses the file /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts to find a matching line for the special user, and if it finds a match, connects the serial line to an available SLIP interface and then runs the shell script /etc/sliphome/slip.login to configure the SLIP interface. An Example of a SLIP Server Login For example, if a SLIP user ID were Shelmerg, Shelmerg's entry in /etc/master.passwd would look something like this (except it would be all on one line): Shelmerg:password:1964:89::0:0:Guy Helmer - SLIP:/usr/users/Shelmerg:/usr/sbin/sliplogin When Shelmerg logs in, sliplogin will search /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts for a line that had a matching user ID; for example, there may be a line in /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts that reads: Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmer 0xfffffc00 autocomp sliplogin will find that matching line, hook the serial line into the next available SLIP interface, and then execute /etc/sliphome/slip.login like this: /etc/sliphome/slip.login 0 19200 Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmer 0xfffffc00 autocomp If all goes well, /etc/sliphome/slip.login will issue an ifconfig for the SLIP interface to which sliplogin attached itself (slip interface 0, in the above example, which was the first parameter in the list given to slip.login) to set the local IP address (dc-slip), remote IP address (sl-helmer), network mask for the SLIP interface (0xfffffc00), and any additional flags (autocomp). If something goes wrong, sliplogin usually logs good informational messages via the daemon syslog facility, which usually goes into /var/log/messages (see the manual pages for syslogd8 and syslog.conf5, and perhaps check /etc/syslog.conf to see to which files syslogd is logging). OK, enough of the examples — let us dive into setting up the system. Kernel Configuration FreeBSD's default kernels usually come with two SLIP interfaces defined (sl0 and sl1); you can use netstat -i to see whether these interfaces are defined in your kernel. Sample output from netstat -i: Name Mtu Network Address Ipkts Ierrs Opkts Oerrs Coll ed0 1500 <Link>0.0.c0.2c.5f.4a 291311 0 174209 0 133 ed0 1500 138.247.224 ivory 291311 0 174209 0 133 lo0 65535 <Link> 79 0 79 0 0 lo0 65535 loop localhost 79 0 79 0 0 sl0* 296 <Link> 0 0 0 0 0 sl1* 296 <Link> 0 0 0 0 0 The sl0 and sl1 interfaces shown in netstat -i's output indicate that there are two SLIP interfaces built into the kernel. (The asterisks after the sl0 and sl1 indicate that the interfaces are down.) However, FreeBSD's default kernels do not come configured to forward packets (ie, your FreeBSD machine will not act as a router) due to Internet RFC requirements for Internet hosts (see RFC's 1009 [Requirements for Internet Gateways], 1122 [Requirements for Internet Hosts — Communication Layers], and perhaps 1127 [A Perspective on the Host Requirements RFCs]), so if you want your FreeBSD SLIP Server to act as a router, you will have to edit the /etc/rc.conf file (called /etc/sysconfig in FreeBSD releases prior to 2.2.2) and change the setting of the gateway variable to . If you have an older system which predates even the /etc/sysconfig file, then add the following command: sysctl -w net.inet.ip.forwarding = 1 to your /etc/rc.local file. You will then need to reboot for the new settings to take effect. You will notice that near the end of the default kernel configuration file (/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC) is a line that reads: pseudo-device sl 2 This is the line that defines the number of SLIP devices available in the kernel; the number at the end of the line is the maximum number of SLIP connections that may be operating simultaneously. Please refer to for help in reconfiguring your kernel. Sliplogin Configuration As mentioned earlier, there are three files in the /etc/sliphome directory that are part of the configuration for /usr/sbin/sliplogin (see sliplogin8 for the actual manual page for sliplogin): slip.hosts, which defines the SLIP users & their associated IP addresses; slip.login, which usually just configures the SLIP interface; and (optionally) slip.logout, which undoes slip.login's effects when the serial connection is terminated. <filename>slip.hosts</filename> Configuration /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts contains lines which have at least four items, separated by whitespace: SLIP user's login ID Local address (local to the SLIP server) of the SLIP link Remote address of the SLIP link Network mask The local and remote addresses may be host names (resolved to IP addresses by /etc/hosts or by the domain name service, depending on your specifications in /etc/host.conf), and I believe the network mask may be a name that can be resolved by a lookup into /etc/networks. On a sample system, /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts looks like this: # # login local-addr remote-addr mask opt1 opt2 # (normal,compress,noicmp) # Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmerg 0xfffffc00 autocomp At the end of the line is one or more of the options. — no header compression — compress headers — compress headers if the remote end allows it — disable ICMP packets (so any ping packets will be dropped instead of using up your bandwidth) Note that sliplogin under early releases of FreeBSD 2 ignored the options that FreeBSD 1.x recognized, so the options , , , and had no effect until support was added in FreeBSD 2.2 (unless your slip.login script included code to make use of the flags). Your choice of local and remote addresses for your SLIP links depends on whether you are going to dedicate a TCP/IP subnet or if you are going to use proxy ARP on your SLIP server (it is not true proxy ARP, but that is the terminology used in this document to describe it). If you are not sure which method to select or how to assign IP addresses, please refer to the TCP/IP books referenced in the section and/or consult your IP network manager. If you are going to use a separate subnet for your SLIP clients, you will need to allocate the subnet number out of your assigned IP network number and assign each of your SLIP client's IP numbers out of that subnet. Then, you will probably either need to configure a static route to the SLIP subnet via your SLIP server on your nearest IP router, or install gated on your FreeBSD SLIP server and configure it to talk the appropriate routing protocols to your other routers to inform them about your SLIP server's route to the SLIP subnet. Otherwise, if you will use the proxy ARP method, you will need to assign your SLIP client's IP addresses out of your SLIP server's Ethernet subnet, and you will also need to adjust your /etc/sliphome/slip.login and /etc/sliphome/slip.logout scripts to use arp8 to manage the proxy-ARP entries in the SLIP server's ARP table. <filename>slip.login</filename> Configuration The typical /etc/sliphome/slip.login file looks like this: #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.login 5.1 (Berkeley) 7/1/90 # # generic login file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 inet $4 $5 netmask $6 This slip.login file merely ifconfig's the appropriate SLIP interface with the local and remote addresses and network mask of the SLIP interface. If you have decided to use the proxy ARP method (instead of using a separate subnet for your SLIP clients), your /etc/sliphome/slip.login file will need to look something like this: #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.login 5.1 (Berkeley) 7/1/90 # # generic login file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 inet $4 $5 netmask $6 # Answer ARP requests for the SLIP client with our Ethernet addr /usr/sbin/arp -s $5 00:11:22:33:44:55 pub The additional line in this slip.login, arp -s $5 00:11:22:33:44:55 pub, creates an ARP entry in the SLIP server's ARP table. This ARP entry causes the SLIP server to respond with the SLIP server's Ethernet MAC address whenever a another IP node on the Ethernet asks to speak to the SLIP client's IP address. When using the example above, be sure to replace the Ethernet MAC address (00:11:22:33:44:55) with the MAC address of your system's Ethernet card, or your proxy ARP will definitely not work! You can discover your SLIP server's Ethernet MAC address by looking at the results of running netstat -i; the second line of the output should look something like: ed0 1500 <Link>0.2.c1.28.5f.4a 191923 0 129457 0 116 This indicates that this particular system's Ethernet MAC address is 00:02:c1:28:5f:4a — the periods in the Ethernet MAC address given by netstat -i must be changed to colons and leading zeros should be added to each single-digit hexadecimal number to convert the address into the form that arp8 desires; see the manual page on arp8 for complete information on usage. When you create /etc/sliphome/slip.login and /etc/sliphome/slip.logout, the execute bit (ie, chmod 755 /etc/sliphome/slip.login /etc/sliphome/slip.logout) must be set, or sliplogin will be unable to execute it. <filename>slip.logout</filename> Configuration /etc/sliphome/slip.logout is not strictly needed (unless you are implementing proxy ARP), but if you decide to create it, this is an example of a basic slip.logout script: #!/bin/sh - # # slip.logout # # logout file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 down If you are using proxy ARP, you will want to have /etc/sliphome/slip.logout remove the ARP entry for the SLIP client: #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.logout # # logout file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 down # Quit answering ARP requests for the SLIP client /usr/sbin/arp -d $5 The arp -d $5 removes the ARP entry that the proxy ARP slip.login added when the SLIP client logged in. It bears repeating: make sure /etc/sliphome/slip.logout has the execute bit set for after you create it (ie, chmod 755 /etc/sliphome/slip.logout). Routing Considerations If you are not using the proxy ARP method for routing packets between your SLIP clients and the rest of your network (and perhaps the Internet), you will probably either have to add static routes to your closest default router(s) to route your SLIP client subnet via your SLIP server, or you will probably need to install and configure gated on your FreeBSD SLIP server so that it will tell your routers via appropriate routing protocols about your SLIP subnet. Static Routes Adding static routes to your nearest default routers can be troublesome (or impossible, if you do not have authority to do so...). If you have a multiple-router network in your organization, some routers, such as Cisco and Proteon, may not only need to be configured with the static route to the SLIP subnet, but also need to be told which static routes to tell other routers about, so some expertise and troubleshooting/tweaking may be necessary to get static-route-based routing to work. Running <command>gated</command> An alternative to the headaches of static routes is to install gated on your FreeBSD SLIP server and configure it to use the appropriate routing protocols (RIP/OSPF/BGP/EGP) to tell other routers about your SLIP subnet. You can use gated from the or retrieve and build it yourself from the GateD anonymous ftp site; I believe the current version as of this writing is gated-R3_5Alpha_8.tar.Z, which includes support for FreeBSD out-of-the-box. Complete information and documentation on gated is available on the Web starting at the Merit GateD Consortium. Compile and install it, and then write a /etc/gated.conf file to configure your gated; here is a sample, similar to what the author used on a FreeBSD SLIP server: # # gated configuration file for dc.dsu.edu; for gated version 3.5alpha5 # Only broadcast RIP information for xxx.xxx.yy out the ed Ethernet interface # # # tracing options # traceoptions "/var/tmp/gated.output" replace size 100k files 2 general ; rip yes { interface sl noripout noripin ; interface ed ripin ripout version 1 ; traceoptions route ; } ; # # Turn on a bunch of tracing info for the interface to the kernel: kernel { traceoptions remnants request routes info interface ; } ; # # Propagate the route to xxx.xxx.yy out the Ethernet interface via RIP # export proto rip interface ed { proto direct { xxx.xxx.yy mask 255.255.252.0 metric 1; # SLIP connections } ; } ; # # Accept routes from RIP via ed Ethernet interfaces import proto rip interface ed { all ; } ; The above sample gated.conf file broadcasts routing information regarding the SLIP subnet xxx.xxx.yy via RIP onto the Ethernet; if you are using a different Ethernet driver than the ed driver, you will need to change the references to the ed interface appropriately. This sample file also sets up tracing to /var/tmp/gated.output for debugging gated's activity; you can certainly turn off the tracing options if gated works OK for you. You will need to change the xxx.xxx.yy's into the network address of your own SLIP subnet (be sure to change the net mask in the proto direct clause as well). When you get gated built and installed and create a configuration file for it, you will need to run gated in place of routed on your FreeBSD system; change the routed/gated startup parameters in /etc/netstart as appropriate for your system. Please see the manual page for gated for information on gated's command-line parameters. Acknowledgments Thanks to these people for comments and advice regarding this tutorial: &a.wilko; Piero Serini Piero@Strider.Inet.IT Advanced Networking Gateways and Routes Contributed by &a.gryphon;.6 October 1995. For one machine to be able to find another, there must be a mechanism in place to describe how to get from one to the other. This is called Routing. A route is a defined pair of addresses: a destination and a gateway. The pair indicates that if you are trying to get to this destination, send along through this gateway. There are three types of destinations: individual hosts, subnets, and default. The default route is used if none of the other routes apply. We will talk a little bit more about default routes later on. There are also three types of gateways: individual hosts, interfaces (also called links), and ethernet hardware addresses. An example To illustrate different aspects of routing, we will use the following example which is the output of the command netstat -r: Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use Netif Expire default outside-gw UGSc 37 418 ppp0 localhost localhost UH 0 181 lo0 test0 0:e0:b5:36:cf:4f UHLW 5 63288 ed0 77 10.20.30.255 link#1 UHLW 1 2421 foobar.com link#1 UC 0 0 host1 0:e0:a8:37:8:1e UHLW 3 4601 lo0 host2 0:e0:a8:37:8:1e UHLW 0 5 lo0 => host2.foobar.com link#1 UC 0 0 224 link#1 UC 0 0 The first two lines specify the default route (which we will cover in the next section) and the localhost route. The interface (Netif column) that it specifies to use for localhost is lo0, also known as the loopback device. This says to keep all traffic for this destination internal, rather than sending it out over the LAN, since it will only end up back where it started anyway. The next thing that stands out are the 0:e0:... addresses. These are ethernet hardware addresses. FreeBSD will automatically identify any hosts (test0 in the example) on the local ethernet and add a route for that host, directly to it over the ethernet interface, ed0. There is also a timeout (Expire column) associated with this type of route, which is used if we fail to hear from the host in a specific amount of time. In this case the route will be automatically deleted. These hosts are identified using a mechanism known as RIP (Routing Information Protocol), which figures out routes to local hosts based upon a shortest path determination. FreeBSD will also add subnet routes for the local subnet (10.20.30.255 is the broadcast address for the subnet 10.20.30, and foobar.com is the domain name associated with that subnet). The designation link#1 refers to the first ethernet card in the machine. You will notice no additional interface is specified for those. Both of these groups (local network hosts and local subnets) have their routes automatically configured by a daemon called routed. If this is not run, then only routes which are statically defined (ie. entered explicitly) will exist. The host1 line refers to our host, which it knows by ethernet address. Since we are the sending host, FreeBSD knows to use the loopback interface (lo0) rather than sending it out over the ethernet interface. The two host2 lines are an example of what happens when we use an ifconfig alias (see the section of ethernet for reasons why we would do this). The => symbol after the lo0 interface says that not only are we using the loopback (since this is address also refers to the local host), but specifically it is an alias. Such routes only show up on the host that supports the alias; all other hosts on the local network will simply have a link#1 line for such. The final line (destination subnet 224) deals with MultiCasting, which will be covered in a another section. The other column that we should talk about are the Flags. Each route has different attributes that are described in the column. Below is a short table of some of these flags and their meanings: U Up: The route is active. H Host: The route destination is a single host. G Gateway: Send anything for this destination on to this remote system, which will figure out from there where to send it. S Static: This route was configured manually, not automatically generated by the system. C Clone: Generates a new route based upon this route for machines we connect to. This type of route is normally used for local networks. W WasCloned: Indicated a route that was auto-configured based upon a local area network (Clone) route. L Link: Route involves references to ethernet hardware. Default routes When the local system needs to make a connection to remote host, it checks the routing table to determine if a known path exists. If the remote host falls into a subnet that we know how to reach (Cloned routes), then the system checks to see if it can connect along that interface. If all known paths fail, the system has one last option: the default route. This route is a special type of gateway route (usually the only one present in the system), and is always marked with a c in the flags field. For hosts on a local area network, this gateway is set to whatever machine has a direct connection to the outside world (whether via PPP link, or your hardware device attached to a dedicated data line). If you are configuring the default route for a machine which itself is functioning as the gateway to the outside world, then the default route will be the gateway machine at your Internet Service Provider's (ISP) site. Let us look at an example of default routes. This is a common configuration: [Local2] <--ether--> [Local1] <--PPP--> [ISP-Serv] <--ether--> [T1-GW] The hosts Local1 and Local2 are at your site, with the formed being your PPP connection to your ISP's Terminal Server. Your ISP has a local network at their site, which has, among other things, the server where you connect and a hardware device (T1-GW) attached to the ISP's Internet feed. The default routes for each of your machines will be: host default gateway interface Local2 Local1 ethernet Local1 T1-GW PPP A common question is Why (or how) would we set the T1-GW to be the default gateway for Local1, rather than the ISP server it is connected to?. Remember, since the PPP interface is using an address on the ISP's local network for your side of the connection, routes for any other machines on the ISP's local network will be automatically generated. Hence, you will already know how to reach the T1-GW machine, so there is no need for the intermediate step of sending traffic to the ISP server. As a final note, it is common to use the address ...1 as the gateway address for your local network. So (using the same example), if your local class-C address space was 10.20.30 and your ISP was using 10.9.9 then the default routes would be: Local2 (10.20.30.2) --> Local1 (10.20.30.1) Local1 (10.20.30.1, 10.9.9.30) --> T1-GW (10.9.9.1) Dual homed hosts There is one other type of configuration that we should cover, and that is a host that sits on two different networks. Technically, any machine functioning as a gateway (in the example above, using a PPP connection) counts as a dual-homed host. But the term is really only used to refer to a machine that sits on two local-area networks. In one case, the machine as two ethernet cards, each having an address on the separate subnets. Alternately, the machine may only have one ethernet card, and be using ifconfig aliasing. The former is used if two physically separate ethernet networks are in use, the latter if there is one physical network segment, but two logically separate subnets. Either way, routing tables are set up so that each subnet knows that this machine is the defined gateway (inbound route) to the other subnet. This configuration, with the machine acting as a Bridge between the two subnets, is often used when we need to implement packet filtering or firewall security in either or both directions. Routing propagation We have already talked about how we define our routes to the outside world, but not about how the outside world finds us. We already know that routing tables can be set up so that all traffic for a particular address space (in our examples, a class-C subnet) can be sent to a particular host on that network, which will forward the packets inbound. When you get an address space assigned to your site, your service provider will set up their routing tables so that all traffic for your subnet will be sent down your PPP link to your site. But how do sites across the country know to send to your ISP? There is a system (much like the distributed DNS information) that keeps track of all assigned address-spaces, and defines their point of connection to the Internet Backbone. The Backbone are the main trunk lines that carry Internet traffic across the country, and around the world. Each backbone machine has a copy of a master set of tables, which direct traffic for a particular network to a specific backbone carrier, and from there down the chain of service providers until it reaches your network. It is the task of your service provider to advertise to the backbone sites that they are the point of connection (and thus the path inward) for your site. This is known as route propagation. Troubleshooting Sometimes, there is a problem with routing propagation, and some sites are unable to connect to you. Perhaps the most useful command for trying to figure out where a routing is breaking down is the traceroute8 command. It is equally useful if you cannot seem to make a connection to a remote machine (ie. ping8 fails). The traceroute8 command is run with the name of the remote host you are trying to connect to. It will show the gateway hosts along the path of the attempt, eventually either reaching the target host, or terminating because of a lack of connection. For more information, see the manual page for traceroute8. NFS Contributed by &a.jlind;. Certain Ethernet adapters for ISA PC systems have limitations which can lead to serious network problems, particularly with NFS. This difficulty is not specific to FreeBSD, but FreeBSD systems are affected by it. The problem nearly always occurs when (FreeBSD) PC systems are networked with high-performance workstations, such as those made by Silicon Graphics, Inc., and Sun Microsystems, Inc. The NFS mount will work fine, and some operations may succeed, but suddenly the server will seem to become unresponsive to the client, even though requests to and from other systems continue to be processed. This happens to the client system, whether the client is the FreeBSD system or the workstation. On many systems, there is no way to shut down the client gracefully once this problem has manifested itself. The only solution is often to reset the client, because the NFS situation cannot be resolved. Though the correct solution is to get a higher performance and capacity Ethernet adapter for the FreeBSD system, there is a simple workaround that will allow satisfactory operation. If the FreeBSD system is the server, include the option on the mount from the client. If the FreeBSD system is the client, then mount the NFS file system with the option . These options may be specified using the fourth field of the fstab entry on the client for automatic mounts, or by using the parameter of the mount command for manual mounts. It should be noted that there is a different problem, sometimes mistaken for this one, when the NFS servers and clients are on different networks. If that is the case, make certain that your routers are routing the necessary UDP information, or you will not get anywhere, no matter what else you are doing. In the following examples, fastws is the host (interface) name of a high-performance workstation, and freebox is the host (interface) name of a FreeBSD system with a lower-performance Ethernet adapter. Also, /sharedfs will be the exported NFS filesystem (see man exports), and /project will be the mount point on the client for the exported file system. In all cases, note that additional options, such as or and may be desirable in your application. Examples for the FreeBSD system (freebox) as the client: in /etc/fstab on freebox: fastws:/sharedfs /project nfs rw,-r=1024 0 0 as a manual mount command on freebox: &prompt.root; mount -t nfs -o -r=1024 fastws:/sharedfs /project Examples for the FreeBSD system as the server: in /etc/fstab on fastws: freebox:/sharedfs /project nfs rw,-w=1024 0 0 as a manual mount command on fastws: &prompt.root; mount -t nfs -o -w=1024 freebox:/sharedfs /project Nearly any 16-bit Ethernet adapter will allow operation without the above restrictions on the read or write size. For anyone who cares, here is what happens when the failure occurs, which also explains why it is unrecoverable. NFS typically works with a block size of 8k (though it may do fragments of smaller sizes). Since the maximum Ethernet packet is around 1500 bytes, the NFS block gets split into multiple Ethernet packets, even though it is still a single unit to the upper-level code, and must be received, assembled, and acknowledged as a unit. The high-performance workstations can pump out the packets which comprise the NFS unit one right after the other, just as close together as the standard allows. On the smaller, lower capacity cards, the later packets overrun the earlier packets of the same unit before they can be transferred to the host and the unit as a whole cannot be reconstructed or acknowledged. As a result, the workstation will time out and try again, but it will try again with the entire 8K unit, and the process will be repeated, ad infinitum. By keeping the unit size below the Ethernet packet size limitation, we ensure that any complete Ethernet packet received can be acknowledged individually, avoiding the deadlock situation. Overruns may still occur when a high-performance workstations is slamming data out to a PC system, but with the better cards, such overruns are not guaranteed on NFS units. When an overrun occurs, the units affected will be retransmitted, and there will be a fair chance that they will be received, assembled, and acknowledged. Diskless Operation Contributed by &a.martin;. netboot.com/netboot.rom allow you to boot your FreeBSD machine over the network and run FreeBSD without having a disk on your client. Under 2.0 it is now possible to have local swap. Swapping over NFS is also still supported. Supported Ethernet cards include: Western Digital/SMC 8003, 8013, 8216 and compatibles; NE1000/NE2000 and compatibles (requires recompile) Setup Instructions Find a machine that will be your server. This machine will require enough disk space to hold the FreeBSD 2.0 binaries and have bootp, tftp and NFS services available. Tested machines: HP9000/8xx running HP-UX 9.04 or later (pre 9.04 doesn't work) Sun/Solaris 2.3. (you may need to get bootp) Set up a bootp server to provide the client with IP, gateway, netmask. diskless:\ :ht=ether:\ :ha=0000c01f848a:\ :sm=255.255.255.0:\ :hn:\ :ds=192.1.2.3:\ :ip=192.1.2.4:\ :gw=192.1.2.5:\ :vm=rfc1048: Set up a TFTP server (on same machine as bootp server) to provide booting information to client. The name of this file is cfg.X.X.X.X (or /tftpboot/cfg.X.X.X.X, it will try both) where X.X.X.X is the IP address of the client. The contents of this file can be any valid netboot commands. Under 2.0, netboot has the following commands: help print help list ip print/set client's IP address server print/set bootp/tftp server address netmask print/set netmask hostname name print/set hostname kernel print/set kernel name rootfs print/set root filesystem swapfs print/set swap filesystem swapsize set diskless swapsize in Kbytes diskboot boot from disk autoboot continue boot process trans | turn transceiver on|off flags set boot flags A typical completely diskless cfg file might contain: rootfs 192.1.2.3:/rootfs/myclient swapfs 192.1.2.3:/swapfs swapsize 20000 hostname myclient.mydomain A cfg file for a machine with local swap might contain: rootfs 192.1.2.3:/rootfs/myclient hostname myclient.mydomain Ensure that your NFS server has exported the root (and swap if applicable) filesystems to your client, and that the client has root access to these filesystems A typical /etc/exports file on FreeBSD might look like: /rootfs/myclient -maproot=0:0 myclient.mydomain /swapfs -maproot=0:0 myclient.mydomain And on HP-UX: /rootfs/myclient -root=myclient.mydomain /swapfs -root=myclient.mydomain If you are swapping over NFS (completely diskless configuration) create a swap file for your client using dd. If your swapfs command has the arguments /swapfs and the size 20000 as in the example above, the swapfile for myclient will be called /swapfs/swap.X.X.X.X where X.X.X.X is the client's IP addr, eg: &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/swapfs/swap.192.1.2.4 bs=1k count=20000 Also, the client's swap space might contain sensitive information once swapping starts, so make sure to restrict read and write access to this file to prevent unauthorized access: &prompt.root; chmod 0600 /swapfs/swap.192.1.2.4 Unpack the root filesystem in the directory the client will use for its root filesystem (/rootfs/myclient in the example above). On HP-UX systems: The server should be running HP-UX 9.04 or later for HP9000/800 series machines. Prior versions do not allow the creation of device files over NFS. When extracting /dev in /rootfs/myclient, beware that some systems (HPUX) will not create device files that FreeBSD is happy with. You may have to go to single user mode on the first bootup (press control-c during the bootup phase), cd /dev and do a sh ./MAKEDEV all from the client to fix this. Run netboot.com on the client or make an EPROM from the netboot.rom file Using Shared <filename>/</filename> and <filename>/usr</filename> filesystems At present there isn't an officially sanctioned way of doing this, although I have been using a shared /usr filesystem and individual / filesystems for each client. If anyone has any suggestions on how to do this cleanly, please let me and/or the &a.core; know. Compiling netboot for specific setups Netboot can be compiled to support NE1000/2000 cards by changing the configuration in /sys/i386/boot/netboot/Makefile. See the comments at the top of this file. ISDN Last modified by &a.wlloyd;. A good resource for information on ISDN technology and hardware is Dan Kegel's ISDN Page. A quick simple roadmap to ISDN follows: If you live in Europe I suggest you investigate the ISDN card section. If you are planning to use ISDN primarily to connect to the Internet with an Internet Provider on a dialup non-dedicated basis, I suggest you look into Terminal Adapters. This will give you the most flexibility, with the fewest problems, if you change providers. If you are connecting two lans together, or connecting to the Internet with a dedicated ISDN connection, I suggest you consider the stand alone router/bridge option. Cost is a significant factor in determining what solution you will choose. The following options are listed from least expensive to most expensive. ISDN Cards Original Contribution by &a.hm;. This section is really only relevant to European ISDN users. The cards supported are not yet(?) available for North American ISDN standards. You should be aware that this code is largely under development. Specifically, drivers have only been written for two manufacturers cards. PC ISDN cards support the full bandwidth of ISDN, 128Kbs. These cards are often the least expensive type of ISDN equipment. Under FreeBSD 2.1.0 and 2.1.5, there is early unfinished ISDN code under /usr/src/gnu/isdn. This code is out of date and should not be used. If you want to go this route, get the bisdn stuff. This code has been removed from the main source tree starting with FreeBSD 2.2. There is the bisdn ISDN package available from hub.freebsd.org supporting FreeBSD 2.1R, FreeBSD-current and NetBSD. The latest source can be found on the above mentioned ftp server under directory isdn as file bisdn-097.tar.gz. There are drivers for the following cards: Currently all (passive) Teles cards and their clones are supported for the EuroISDN (DSS1) and 1TR6 protocols. Dr. Neuhaus — Niccy 1016 There are several limitations with the bisdn stuff. Specifically the following features usually associated with ISDN are not supported. No PPP support, only raw hdlc. This means you cannot connect to most standalone routers. Bridging Control Protocol not supported. Multiple cards are not supported. No bandwidth on demand. No channel bundling. A majordomo maintained mailing list is available. To join the list, send mail to &a.majordomo; and specify: subscribe freebsd-isdn in the body of your message. ISDN Terminal Adapters Terminal adapters(TA), are to ISDN what modems are to regular phone lines. Most TA's use the standard hayes modem AT command set, and can be used as a drop in replacement for a modem. A TA will operate basically the same as a modem except connection and throughput speeds will be much faster than your old modem. You will need to configure exactly the same as for a modem setup. Make sure you set your serial speed as high as possible. The main advantage of using a TA to connect to an Internet Provider is that you can do Dynamic PPP. As IP address space becomes more and more scarce, most providers are not willing to provide you with a static IP anymore. Most standalone routers are not able to accommodate dynamic IP allocation. TA's completely rely on the PPP daemon that you are running for their features and stability of connection. This allows you to upgrade easily from using a modem to ISDN on a FreeBSD machine, if you already have PPP setup. However, at the same time any problems you experienced with the PPP program and are going to persist. If you want maximum stability, use the kernel option, not the user-land . The following TA's are know to work with FreeBSD. Motorola BitSurfer and Bitsurfer Pro Adtran Most other TA's will probably work as well, TA vendors try to make sure their product can accept most of the standard modem AT command set. The real problem with external TA's is like modems you need a good serial card in your computer. You should read the section in the handbook for a detailed understanding of serial devices, and the differences between asynchronous and synchronous serial ports. A TA running off a standard PC serial port (asynchronous) limits you to 115.2Kbs, even though you have a 128Kbs connection. To fully utilize the 128Kbs that ISDN is capable of, you must move the TA to a synchronous serial card. Do not be fooled into buying an internal TA and thinking you have avoided the synchronous/asynchronous issue. Internal TA's simply have a standard PC serial port chip built into them. All this will do, is save you having to buy another serial cable, and find another empty electrical socket. A synchronous card with a TA is at least as fast as a standalone router, and with a simple 386 FreeBSD box driving it, probably more flexible. The choice of sync/TA vs standalone router is largely a religious issue. There has been some discussion of this in the mailing lists. I suggest you search the archives for the complete discussion. Standalone ISDN Bridges/Routers ISDN bridges or routers are not at all specific to FreeBSD or any other operating system. For a more complete description of routing and bridging technology, please refer to a Networking reference book. In the context of this page, I will use router and bridge interchangeably. As the cost of low end ISDN routers/bridges comes down, it will likely become a more and more popular choice. An ISDN router is a small box that plugs directly into your local Ethernet network(or card), and manages its own connection to the other bridge/router. It has all the software to do PPP and other protocols built in. A router will allow you much faster throughput that a standard TA, since it will be using a full synchronous ISDN connection. The main problem with ISDN routers and bridges is that interoperability between manufacturers can still be a problem. If you are planning to connect to an Internet provider, I recommend that you discuss your needs with them. If you are planning to connect two lan segments together, ie: home lan to the office lan, this is the simplest lowest maintenance solution. Since you are buying the equipment for both sides of the connection you can be assured that the link will work. For example to connect a home computer or branch office network to a head office network the following setup could be used. Branch office or Home network Network is 10 Base T Ethernet. Connect router to network cable with AUI/10BT transceiver, if necessary. ---Sun workstation | ---FreeBSD box | ---Windows 95 (Do not admit to owning it) | Standalone router | ISDN BRI line If your home/branch office is only one computer you can use a twisted pair crossover cable to connect to the standalone router directly. Head office or other lan Network is Twisted Pair Ethernet. -------Novell Server | H | | ---Sun | | | U ---FreeBSD | | | ---Windows 95 | B | |___---Standalone router | ISDN BRI line One large advantage of most routers/bridges is that they allow you to have 2 separate independent PPP connections to 2 separate sites at the same time. This is not supported on most TA's, except for specific(expensive) models that have two serial ports. Do not confuse this with channel bonding, MPP etc. This can be very useful feature, for example if you have an dedicated internet ISDN connection at your office and would like to tap into it, but don't want to get another ISDN line at work. A router at the office location can manage a dedicated B channel connection (64Kbs) to the internet, as well as a use the other B channel for a separate data connection. The second B channel can be used for dialin, dialout or dynamically bond(MPP etc.) with the first B channel for more bandwidth. An Ethernet bridge will also allow you to transmit more than just IP traffic, you can also send IPX/SPX or whatever other protocols you use. Electronic Mail Contributed by &a.wlloyd;. Electronic Mail configuration is the subject of many books. If you plan on doing anything beyond setting up one mailhost for your network, you need industrial strength help. Some parts of E-Mail configuration are controlled in the Domain Name System (DNS). If you are going to run your own own DNS server check out /etc/namedb and man -k named for more information. Basic Information These are the major programs involved in an E-Mail exchange. A mailhost is a server that is responsible for delivering and receiving all email for your host, and possibly your network. User program This is a program like elm, pine, mail, or something more sophisticated like a WWW browser. This program will simply pass off all e-mail transactions to the local mailhost , either by calling sendmail or delivering it over TCP. Mailhost Server Daemon Usually this program is sendmail or smail running in the background. Turn it off or change the command line options in /etc/rc.conf (or, prior to FreeBSD 2.2.2, /etc/sysconfig). It is best to leave it on, unless you have a specific reason to want it off. Example: You are building a . You should be aware that sendmail is a potential weak link in a secure site. Some versions of sendmail have known security problems. sendmail does two jobs. It looks after delivering and receiving mail. If sendmail needs to deliver mail off your site it will look up in the DNS to determine the actual host that will receive mail for the destination. If it is acting as a delivery agent sendmail will take the message from the local queue and deliver it across the Internet to another sendmail on the receivers computer. DNS — Name Service The Domain Name System and its daemon named, contain the database mapping hostname to IP address, and hostname to mailhost. The IP address is specified in an A record. The MX record specifies the mailhost that will receive mail for you. If you do not have a MX record mail for your hostname, the mail will be delivered to your host directly. Unless you are running your own DNS server, you will not be able to change any information in the DNS yourself. If you are using an Internet Provider, speak to them. POP Servers This program gets the mail from your mailbox and gives it to your browser. If you want to run a POP server on your computer, you will need to do 2 things. Get pop software from the Ports collection that can be found in /usr/ports or packages collection. This handbook section has a complete reference on the system. Modify /etc/inetd.conf to load the POP server. The pop program will have instructions with it. Read them. Configuration Basic As your FreeBSD system comes out of the box[TM], you should be able to send E-mail to external hosts as long as you have /etc/resolv.conf setup or are running a name server. If you want to have mail for your host delivered to your specific host,there are two methods: Run a name server (man -k named) and have your own domain smallminingco.com Get mail delivered to the current DNS name for your host. Ie: dorm6.ahouse.school.edu No matter what option you choose, to have mail delivered directly to your host, you must be a full Internet host. You must have a permanent IP address. IE: NO dynamic PPP. If you are behind a firewall, the firewall must be passing on smtp traffic to you. From /etc/services: smtp 25/tcp mail #Simple Mail Transfer If you want to receive mail at your host itself, you must make sure that the DNS MX entry points to your host address, or there is no MX entry for your DNS name. Try this: &prompt.root; hostname newbsdbox.freebsd.org &prompt.root; host newbsdbox.freebsd.org newbsdbox.freebsd.org has address 204.216.27.xx If that is all that comes out for your machine, mail directory to root@newbsdbox.freebsd.org will work no problems. If instead, you have this: &prompt.root; host newbsdbox.freebsd.org newbsdbox.FreeBSD.org has address 204.216.27.xx newbsdbox.FreeBSD.org mail is handled (pri=10) by freefall.FreeBSD.org All mail sent to your host directly will end up on freefall, under the same username. This information is setup in your domain name server. This should be the same host that is listed as your primary nameserver in /etc/resolv.conf The DNS record that carries mail routing information is the Mail eXchange entry. If no MX entry exists, mail will be delivered directly to the host by way of the Address record. The MX entry for freefall.freebsd.org at one time. freefall MX 30 mail.crl.net freefall MX 40 agora.rdrop.com freefall HINFO Pentium FreeBSD freefall MX 10 freefall.FreeBSD.org freefall MX 20 who.cdrom.com freefall A 204.216.27.xx freefall CNAME www.FreeBSD.org freefall has many MX entries. The lowest MX number gets the mail in the end. The others will queue mail temporarily, if freefall is busy or down. Alternate MX sites should have separate connections to the Internet, to be most useful. An Internet Provider or other friendly site can provide this service. dig, nslookup, and host are your friends. Mail for your Domain (Network). To setup up a network mailhost, you need to direct the mail from arriving at all the workstations. In other words, you want to hijack all mail for *.smallminingco.com and divert it to one machine, your mailhost. The network users on their workstations will most likely pick up their mail over POP or telnet. A user account with the same username should exist on both machines. Please use adduser to do this as required. If you set the shell to /nonexistent the user will not be allowed to login. The mailhost that you will be using must be designated the Mail eXchange for each workstation. This must be arranged in DNS (ie BIND, named). Please refer to a Networking book for in-depth information. You basically need to add these lines in your DNS server. pc24.smallminingco.com A xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx ; Workstation ip MX 10 smtp.smallminingco.com ; Your mailhost You cannot do this yourself unless you are running a DNS server. If you do not want to run a DNS server, get somebody else like your Internet Provider to do it. This will redirect mail for the workstation to the Mail eXchange host. It does not matter what machine the A record points to, the mail will be sent to the MX host. This feature is used to implement Virtual E-Mail Hosting. Example I have a customer with domain foo.bar and I want all mail for foo.bar to be sent to my machine smtp.smalliap.com. You must make an entry in your DNS server like: foo.bar MX 10 smtp.smalliap.com ; your mailhost The A record is not needed if you only want E-Mail for the domain. IE: Don't expect ping foo.bar to work unless an Address record for foo.bar exists as well. On the mailhost that actually accepts mail for final delivery to a mailbox, sendmail must be told what hosts it will be accepting mail for. Add pc24.smallminingco.com to /etc/sendmail.cw (if you are using FEATURE(use_cw_file)), or add a Cw myhost.smalliap.com line to /etc/sendmail.cf If you plan on doing anything serious with sendmail you should install the sendmail source. The source has plenty of documentation with it. You will find information on getting sendmail source from . Setting up UUCP. Stolen from the FAQ. The sendmail configuration that ships with FreeBSD is suited for sites that connect directly to the Internet. Sites that wish to exchange their mail via UUCP must install another sendmail configuration file. Tweaking /etc/sendmail.cf manually is considered something for purists. Sendmail version 8 comes with a new approach of generating config files via some m4 preprocessing, where the actual hand-crafted configuration is on a higher abstraction level. You should use the configuration files under /usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail/cf. If you did not install your system with full sources, the sendmail config stuff has been broken out into a separate source distribution tarball just for you. Assuming you have your CD-ROM mounted, do: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src &prompt.root; tar -xvzf /cdrom/dists/src/ssmailcf.aa Do not panic, this is only a few hundred kilobytes in size. The file README in the cf directory can serve as a basic introduction to m4 configuration. For UUCP delivery, you are best advised to use the mailertable feature. This constitutes a database that sendmail can use to base its routing decision upon. First, you have to create your .mc file. The directory /usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail/cf/cf is the home of these files. Look around, there are already a few examples. Assuming you have named your file foo.mc, all you need to do in order to convert it into a valid sendmail.cf is: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail/cf/cf &prompt.root; make foo.cf If you don't have a /usr/obj hiearchy, then: &prompt.root; cp foo.cf /etc/sendmail.cf Otherwise: &prompt.root; cp /usr/obj/`pwd`/foo.cf /etc/sendmail.cf A typical .mc file might look like: include(`../m4/cf.m4') VERSIONID(`Your version number') OSTYPE(bsd4.4) FEATURE(nodns) FEATURE(nocanonify) FEATURE(mailertable) define(`UUCP_RELAY', your.uucp.relay) define(`UUCP_MAX_SIZE', 200000) MAILER(local) MAILER(smtp) MAILER(uucp) Cw your.alias.host.name Cw youruucpnodename.UUCP The nodns and nocanonify features will prevent any usage of the DNS during mail delivery. The UUCP_RELAY clause is needed for bizarre reasons, do not ask. Simply put an Internet hostname there that is able to handle .UUCP pseudo-domain addresses; most likely, you will enter the mail relay of your ISP there. Once you have this, you need this file called /etc/mailertable. A typical example of this gender again: # # makemap hash /etc/mailertable.db < /etc/mailertable # horus.interface-business.de uucp-dom:horus .interface-business.de uucp-dom:if-bus interface-business.de uucp-dom:if-bus .heep.sax.de smtp8:%1 horus.UUCP uucp-dom:horus if-bus.UUCP uucp-dom:if-bus . uucp-dom:sax As you can see, this is part of a real-life file. The first three lines handle special cases where domain-addressed mail should not be sent out to the default route, but instead to some UUCP neighbor in order to shortcut the delivery path. The next line handles mail to the local Ethernet domain that can be delivered using SMTP. Finally, the UUCP neighbors are mentioned in the .UUCP pseudo-domain notation, to allow for a uucp-neighbor!recipient override of the default rules. The last line is always a single dot, matching everything else, with UUCP delivery to a UUCP neighbor that serves as your universal mail gateway to the world. All of the node names behind the uucp-dom: keyword must be valid UUCP neighbors, as you can verify using the command uuname. As a reminder that this file needs to be converted into a DBM database file before being usable, the command line to accomplish this is best placed as a comment at the top of the mailertable. You always have to execute this command each time you change your mailertable. Final hint: if you are uncertain whether some particular mail routing would work, remember the option to sendmail. It starts sendmail in address test mode; simply enter 0, followed by the address you wish to test for the mail routing. The last line tells you the used internal mail agent, the destination host this agent will be called with, and the (possibly translated) address. Leave this mode by typing Control-D. &prompt.user; sendmail -bt ADDRESS TEST MODE (ruleset 3 NOT automatically invoked) Enter <ruleset> <address> > 0 foo@interface-business.de rewrite: ruleset 0 input: foo @ interface-business . de … rewrite: ruleset 0 returns: $# uucp-dom $@ if-bus $: foo < @ interface-business . de FAQ Migration from FAQ. Why do I have to use the FQDN for hosts on my site? You will probably find that the host is actually in a different domain; for example, if you are in foo.bar.edu and you wish to reach a host called mumble in the bar.edu domain, you will have to refer to it by the fully-qualified domain name, mumble.bar.edu, instead of just mumble. Traditionally, this was allowed by BSD BIND resolvers. However the current version of BIND that ships with FreeBSD no longer provides default abbreviations for non-fully qualified domain names other than the domain you are in. So an unqualified host mumble must either be found as mumble.foo.bar.edu, or it will be searched for in the root domain. This is different from the previous behavior, where the search continued across mumble.bar.edu, and mumble.edu. Have a look at RFC 1535 for why this was considered bad practice, or even a security hole. As a good workaround, you can place the line search foo.bar.edu bar.edu instead of the previous domain foo.bar.edu into your /etc/resolv.conf. However, make sure that the search order does not go beyond the boundary between local and public administration, as RFC 1535 calls it. Sendmail says <errorname>mail loops back to myself</errorname> This is answered in the sendmail FAQ as follows: * I am getting "Local configuration error" messages, such as: 553 relay.domain.net config error: mail loops back to myself 554 <user@domain.net>... Local configuration error How can I solve this problem? You have asked mail to the domain (e.g., domain.net) to be forwarded to a specific host (in this case, relay.domain.net) by using an MX record, but the relay machine does not recognize itself as domain.net. Add domain.net to /etc/sendmail.cw (if you are using FEATURE(use_cw_file)) or add "Cw domain.net" to /etc/sendmail.cf. The sendmail FAQ is in /usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail and is recommended reading if you want to do any tweaking of your mail setup. How can I do E-Mail with a dialup PPP host? You want to connect a FreeBSD box on a lan, to the Internet. The FreeBSD box will be a mail gateway for the lan. The PPP connection is non-dedicated. There are at least two way to do this. The other is to use UUCP. The key is to get a Internet site to provide secondary MX services for your domain. For example: bigco.com. MX 10 bigco.com. MX 20 smalliap.com. Only one host should be specified as the final recipient ( add Cw bigco.com in /etc/sendmail.cf on bigco.com). When the senders sendmail is trying to deliver the mail it will try to connect to you over the modem link. It will most likely time out because you are not online. sendmail will automatically deliver it to the secondary MX site, ie your Internet provider. The secondary MX site will try every (sendmail_flags = "-bd -q15m" in /etc/rc.conf ) 15 minutes to connect to your host to deliver the mail to the primary MX site. You might wat to use something like this as a login script. #!/bin/sh # Put me in /usr/local/bin/pppbigco ( sleep 60 ; /usr/sbin/sendmail -q ) & /usr/sbin/ppp -direct pppbigco If you are going to create a separate login script for a user you could use sendmail -qRbigco.com instead in the script above. This will force all mail in your queue for bigco.com to be processed immediately. A further refinement of the situation is as follows. Message stolen from the freebsd-isp mailing list. > we provide the secondary mx for a customer. The customer connects to > our services several times a day automatically to get the mails to > his primary mx (We do not call his site when a mail for his domains > arrived). Our sendmail sends the mailqueue every 30 minutes. At the > moment he has to stay 30 minutes online to be sure that all mail is > gone to the primary mx. > > Is there a command that would initiate sendmail to send all the mails > now? The user has not root-privileges on our machine of course. In the 'privacy flags' section of sendmail.cf, there is a definition Opgoaway,restrictqrun Remove restrictqrun to allow non-root users to start the queue processing. You might also like to rearrange the MXs. We are the 1st MX for our customers like this, and we have defined: # If we are the best MX for a host, try directly instead of generating # local config error. OwTrue That way a remote site will deliver straight to you, without trying the customer connection. You then send to your customer. Only works for "hosts", so you need to get your customer to name their mail machine "customer.com" as well as "hostname.customer.com" in the DNS. Just put an A record in the DNS for "customer.com". Advanced topics The Cutting Edge: FreeBSD-current and FreeBSD-stable FreeBSD is under constant development between releases. For people who want to be on the cutting edge, there are several easy mechanisms for keeping your system in sync with the latest developments. Be warned: the cutting edge is not for everyone! This chapter will help you decide if you want to track the development system, or stick with one of the released versions. Staying Current with FreeBSD Contributed by &a.jkh;. What is FreeBSD-current? FreeBSD-current is, quite literally, nothing more than a daily snapshot of the working sources for FreeBSD. These include work in progress, experimental changes and transitional mechanisms that may or may not be present in the next official release of the software. While many of us compile almost daily from FreeBSD-current sources, there are periods of time when the sources are literally un-compilable. These problems are generally resolved as expeditiously as possible, but whether or not FreeBSD-current sources bring disaster or greatly desired functionality can literally be a matter of which part of any given 24 hour period you grabbed them in! Who needs FreeBSD-current? FreeBSD-current is made generally available for 3 primary interest groups: Members of the FreeBSD group who are actively working on some part of the source tree and for whom keeping current is an absolute requirement. Members of the FreeBSD group who are active testers, willing to spend time working through problems in order to ensure that FreeBSD-current remains as sane as possible. These are also people who wish to make topical suggestions on changes and the general direction of FreeBSD. Peripheral members of the FreeBSD (or some other) group who merely wish to keep an eye on things and use the current sources for reference purposes (e.g. for reading, not running). These people also make the occasional comment or contribute code. What is FreeBSD-current <emphasis>not</emphasis>? A fast-track to getting pre-release bits because you heard there is some cool new feature in there and you want to be the first on your block to have it. A quick way of getting bug fixes. In any way officially supported by us. We do our best to help people genuinely in one of the 3 legitimate FreeBSD-current categories, but we simply do not have the time to provide tech support for it. This is not because we are mean and nasty people who do not like helping people out (we would not even be doing FreeBSD if we were), it is literally because we cannot answer 400 messages a day and actually work on FreeBSD! I am sure that, if given the choice between having us answer lots of questions or continuing to improve FreeBSD, most of you would vote for us improving it. Using FreeBSD-current Join the &a.current; and the &a.cvsall; . This is not just a good idea, it is essential. If you are not on the FreeBSD-current mailing list you will not see the comments that people are making about the current state of the system and thus will probably end up stumbling over a lot of problems that others have already found and solved. Even more importantly, you will miss out on potentially critical information (e.g. Yo, Everybody! Before you rebuild /usr/src, you must rebuild the kernel or your system will crash horribly!). The cvs-all mailing list will allow you to see the commit log entry for each change as it is made along with any pertinent information on possible side-effects. To join these lists, send mail to &a.majordomo; and specify: subscribe freebsd-current subscribe cvs-all in the body of your message. Optionally, you can also say help and Majordomo will send you full help on how to subscribe and unsubscribe to the various other mailing lists we support. Grab the sources from ftp.FreeBSD.ORG. You can do this in three ways: Use the facility. Unless you have a good TCP/IP connection at a flat rate, this is the way to do it. Use the program with this supfile. This is the second most recommended method, since it allows you to grab the entire collection once and then only what has changed from then on. Many people run cvsup from cron and keep their sources up-to-date automatically. Use ftp. The source tree for FreeBSD-current is always exported on: ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-current We also use wu-ftpd which allows compressed/tar'd grabbing of whole trees. e.g. you see: usr.bin/lex You can do: ftp> cd usr.bin ftp> get lex.tar.Z and it will get the whole directory for you as a compressed tar file. Essentially, if you need rapid on-demand access to the source and communications bandwidth is not a consideration, use cvsup or ftp. Otherwise, use CTM. If you are grabbing the sources to run, and not just look at, then grab all of current, not just selected portions. The reason for this is that various parts of the source depend on updates elsewhere, and trying to compile just a subset is almost guaranteed to get you into trouble. Before compiling current, read the Makefile in /usr/src carefully. You should at least run a the first time through as part of the upgrading process. Reading the &a.current; will keep you up-to-date on other bootstrapping procedures that sometimes become necessary as we move towards the next release. Be active! If you are running FreeBSD-current, we want to know what you have to say about it, especially if you have suggestions for enhancements or bug fixes. Suggestions with accompanying code are received most enthusiastically! Staying Stable with FreeBSD Contributed by &a.jkh;. What is FreeBSD-stable? FreeBSD-stable is our development branch for a more low-key and conservative set of changes intended for our next mainstream release. Changes of an experimental or untested nature do not go into this branch (see ). Who needs FreeBSD-stable? If you are a commercial user or someone who puts maximum stability of their FreeBSD system before all other concerns, you should consider tracking stable. This is especially true if you have installed the most recent release (&rel.current;-RELEASE at the time of this writing) since the stable branch is effectively a bug-fix stream relative to the previous release. The stable tree endeavors, above all, to be fully compilable and stable at all times, but we do occasionally make mistakes (these are still active sources with quickly-transmitted updates, after all). We also do our best to thoroughly test fixes in current before bringing them into stable, but sometimes our tests fail to catch every case. If something breaks for you in stable, please let us know immediately! (see next section). Using FreeBSD-stable Join the &a.stable; . This will keep you informed of build-dependencies that may appear in stable or any other issues requiring special attention. Developers will also make announcements in this mailing list when they are contemplating some controversial fix or update, giving the users a chance to respond if they have any issues to raise concerning the proposed change. To join this list, send mail to &a.majordomo; and say: subscribe freebsd-stable In the body of your message. Optionally, you can also say `help' and Majordomo will send you full help on how to subscribe and unsubscribe to the various other mailing lists we support. Grab the sources from ftp.FreeBSD.ORG. You can do this in three ways: Use the facility. Unless you have a good TCP/IP connection at a flat rate, this is the way to do it. Use the program with this supfile. This is the second most recommended method, since it allows you to grab the entire collection once and then only what has changed from then on. Many people run cvsup from cron to keep their sources up-to-date automatically. Use ftp. The source tree for FreeBSD-stable is always exported on: ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-stable We also use wu-ftpd which allows compressed/tar'd grabbing of whole trees. e.g. you see: usr.bin/lex You can do: ftp> cd usr.bin ftp> get lex.tar.Z and it will get the whole directory for you as a compressed tar file. Essentially, if you need rapid on-demand access to the source and communications bandwidth is not a consideration, use cvsup or ftp. Otherwise, use CTM. Before compiling stable, read the Makefile in /usr/src carefully. You should at least run a the first time through as part of the upgrading process. Reading the &a.stable; will keep you up-to-date on other bootstrapping procedures that sometimes become necessary as we move towards the next release. Synchronizing Source Trees over the Internet Contributed by &a.jkh;. There are various ways of using an Internet (or email) connection to stay up-to-date with any given area of the FreeBSD project sources, or all areas, depending on what interests you. The primary services we offer are CVSup and CTM. CVSup uses the pull model of updating. The user (or a cron script) invokes the cvsup program, and it interacts with a cvsupd server somewhere to bring your files up to date. The updates you receive are up-to-the-minute and you get them when, and only when, you want them. You can easily restrict your updates to the specific files or directories that are of interest to you. Updates are generated on the fly by the server, according to what you have and what you want to have. CTM, on the other hand, does not interactively compare the sources you have with those on the master archive. Instead, a script which identifies changes in files since its previous run is executed several times a day on the master archive, any detected changes being compressed, stamped with a sequence-number and encoded for transmission over email (printable ASCII only). Once received, these CTM deltas can then be handed to the ctm_rmail1 utility which will automatically decode, verify and apply the changes to the user's copy of the sources. This process is far more efficient than CVSup, and places less strain on our server resources since it is a push rather than a pull model. There are other trade-offs, of course. If you inadvertently wipe out portions of your archive, CVSup will detect and rebuild the damaged portions for you. CTM won't do this, and if you wipe some portion of your source tree out (and don't have it backed up) then you will have to start from scratch (from the most recent CVS base delta) and rebuild it all. For more information on CTM and CVSup, please see one of the following sections: <application>CTM</application> Contributed by &a.phk;. Updated 19-October-1997. CTM is a method for keeping a remote directory tree in sync with a central one. It has been developed for usage with FreeBSD's source trees, though other people may find it useful for other purposes as time goes by. Little, if any, documentation currently exists at this time on the process of creating deltas, so talk to &a.phk; for more information should you wish to use CTM for other things. Why should I use <application>CTM</application>? CTM will give you a local copy of the FreeBSD source trees. There are a number of flavors of the tree available. Whether you wish to track the entire cvs tree or just one of the branches, CTM can provide you the information. If you are an active developer on FreeBSD, but have lousy or non-existent TCP/IP connectivity, or simply wish to have the changes automatically sent to you, CTM was made for you. You will need to obtain up to three deltas per day for the most active branches. However, you should consider having them sent by automatic email. The sizes of the updates are always kept as small as possible. This is typically less than 5K, with an occasional (one in ten) being 10-50K and every now and then a biggie of 100K+ or more coming around. You will also need to make yourself aware of the various caveats related to working directly from the development sources rather than a pre-packaged release. This is particularly true if you choose the current sources. It is recommended that you read . What do I need to use <application>CTM</application>? You will need two things: The CTM program and the initial deltas to feed it (to get up to current levels). The CTM program has been part of FreeBSD ever since version 2.0 was released, and lives in /usr/src/usr.sbin/CTM if you have a copy of the source online. If you are running a pre-2.0 version of FreeBSD, you can fetch the current CTM sources directly from: ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-current/src/usr.sbin/ctm The deltas you feed CTM can be had two ways, FTP or e-mail. If you have general FTP access to the Internet then the following FTP sites support access to CTM: ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD/CTM or see section . FTP the relevant directory and fetch the README file, starting from there. If you may wish to get your deltas via email: Send email to &a.majordomo; to subscribe to one of the CTM distribution lists. ctm-cvs-cur supports the entire cvs tree. ctm-src-cur supports the head of the development branch. ctm-src-2_2 supports the 2.2 release branch, etc. (If you do not know how to subscribe yourself using majordomo, send a message first containing the word help — it will send you back usage instructions.) When you begin receiving your CTM updates in the mail, you may use the ctm_rmail program to unpack and apply them. You can actually use the ctm_rmail program directly from a entry in /etc/aliases if you want to have the process run in a fully automated fashion. Check the ctm_rmail man page for more details. No matter what method you use to get the CTM deltas, you should subscribe to the ctm-announce@FreeBSD.ORG mailing list. In the future, this will be the only place where announcements concerning the operations of the CTM system will be posted. Send an email to &a.majordomo; with a single line of subscribe ctm-announce to get added to the list. Starting off with <application>CTM</application> for the first time Before you can start using CTM deltas, you will need to get a to a starting point for the deltas produced subsequently to it. First you should determine what you already have. Everyone can start from an empty directory. However, since the trees are many tens of megabytes, you should prefer to start from something already at hand. If you have a RELEASE CD, you can copy or extract an initial source from it. This will save a significant transfer of data. Once you identify a suitable starting point, you must use an initial transition delta to transform your starting point into a CTM supported tree. You can recognize these transition deltas by the X appended to the number (src-cur.3210XEmpty.gz for instance). The designation following the X corresponds to the origin of your initial seed. Empty is an empty directory, R225 would designate the 2.2.5 release, etc. As a rule a base transition from Empty is producted every 100 deltas. By the way, they are large! 25 to 30 Megabytes of gzip'ed data is common for the XEmpty deltas. Once you've picked a base delta to start from, you will also need all deltas with higher numbers following it. Using <application>CTM</application> in your daily life To apply the deltas, simply say: &prompt.root; cd /where/ever/you/want/the/stuff &prompt.root; ctm -v -v /where/you/store/your/deltas/src-xxx.* CTM understands deltas which have been put through gzip, so you do not need to gunzip them first, this saves disk space. Unless it feels very secure about the entire process, CTM will not touch your tree. To verify a delta you can also use the flag and CTM will not actually touch your tree; it will merely verify the integrity of the delta and see if it would apply cleanly to your current tree. There are other options to CTM as well, see the manual pages or look in the sources for more information. I would also be very happy if somebody could help with the user interface portions, as I have realized that I cannot make up my mind on what options should do what, how and when... That's really all there is to it. Every time you get a new delta, just run it through CTM to keep your sources up to date. Do not remove the deltas if they are hard to download again. You just might want to keep them around in case something bad happens. Even if you only have floppy disks, consider using fdwrite to make a copy. Keeping your local changes As a developer one would like to experiment with and change files in the source tree. CTM supports local modifications in a limited way: before checking for the presence of a file foo, it first looks for foo.ctm. If this file exists, CTM will operate on it instead of foo. This behaviour gives us a simple way to maintain local changes: simply copy the files you plan to modify to the corresponding file names with a .ctm suffix. Then you can freely hack the code, while CTM keeps the .ctm file up-to-date. Other interesting <application>CTM</application> options Finding out exactly what would be touched by an update You can determine the list of changes that CTM will make on your source repository using the option to CTM. This is useful if you would like to keep logs of the changes, pre- or post- process the modified files in any manner, or just are feeling a tad paranoid :-). Making backups before updating Sometimes you may want to backup all the files that would be changed by a CTM update. Specifying the option causes CTM to backup all files that would be touched by a given CTM delta to backup-file. Restricting the files touched by an update Sometimes you would be interested in restricting the scope of a given CTM update, or may be interested in extracting just a few files from a sequence of deltas. You can control the list of files that CTM would operate on by specifying filtering regular expressions using the and options. For example, to extract an up-to-date copy of lib/libc/Makefile from your collection of saved CTM deltas, run the commands: &prompt.root; cd /where/ever/you/want/to/extract/it/ &prompt.root; ctm -e '^lib/libc/Makefile' ~ctm/src-xxx.* For every file specified in a CTM delta, the and options are applied in the order given on the command line. The file is processed by CTM only if it is marked as eligible after all the and options are applied to it. Future plans for <application>CTM</application> Tons of them: Use some kind of authentication into the CTM system, so as to allow detection of spoofed CTM updates. Clean up the options to CTM, they became confusing and counter intuitive. The bad news is that I am very busy, so any help in doing this will be most welcome. And do not forget to tell me what you want also... Miscellaneous stuff All the DES infected (e.g. export controlled) source is not included. You will get the international version only. If sufficient interest appears, we will set up a sec-cur sequence too. There is a sequence of deltas for the ports collection too, but interest has not been all that high yet. Tell me if you want an email list for that too and we will consider setting it up. Thanks! &a.bde; for his pointed pen and invaluable comments. &a.sos; for patience. Stephen McKay wrote ctm_[rs]mail, much appreciated. &a.jkh; for being so stubborn that I had to make it better. All the users I hope you like it... <application>CVSup</application> Contributed by &a.jdp;. Introduction CVSup is a software package for distributing and updating source trees from a master CVS repository on a remote server host. The FreeBSD sources are maintained in a CVS repository on a central development machine in California. With CVSup, FreeBSD users can easily keep their own source trees up to date. CVSup uses the so-called pull model of updating. Under the pull model, each client asks the server for updates, if and when they are wanted. The server waits passively for update requests from its clients. Thus all updates are instigated by the client. The server never sends unsolicited updates. Users must either run the CVSup client manually to get an update, or they must set up a cron job to run it automatically on a regular basis. The term CVSup, capitalized just so, refers to the entire software package. Its main components are the client cvsup which runs on each user's machine, and the server cvsupd which runs at each of the FreeBSD mirror sites. As you read the FreeBSD documentation and mailing lists, you may see references to sup. Sup was the predecessor of CVSup, and it served a similar purpose. CVSup is in used in much the same way as sup and, in fact, uses configuration files which are backward-compatible with sup's. Sup is no longer used in the FreeBSD project, because CVSup is both faster and more flexible. Installation The easiest way to install CVSup if you are running FreeBSD 2.2 or later is to use either the port from the FreeBSD or the corresponding binary package, depending on whether you prefer to roll your own or not. If you are running FreeBSD-2.1.6 or 2.1.7, you unfortunately cannot use the binary package versions due to the fact that it requires a version of the C library that does not yet exist in FreeBSD-2.1.{6,7}. You can easily use the port, however, just as with FreeBSD 2.2. Simply unpack the tar file, cd to the cvsup subdirectory and type make install. Because CVSup is written in Modula-3, both the package and the port require that the Modula-3 runtime libraries be installed. These are available as the lang/modula-3-lib port and the lang/modula-3-lib-3.6 package. If you follow the same directions as for cvsup, these libraries will be compiled and/or installed automatically when you install the CVSup port or package. The Modula-3 libraries are rather large, and fetching and compiling them is not an instantaneous process. For that reason, a third option is provided. You can get statically linked FreeBSD executables for CVSup from either the USA distribution site: ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/CVSup/cvsup-bin-15.3.tar.gz (client including GUI). ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/CVSup/cvsup.nogui-bin-15.3.tar.gz (client without GUI). ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/CVSup/cvsupd-bin-15.3.tar.gz (server). or the German mirror: ftp://ftp.cs.tu-berlin.de/pub/FreeBSD/CVSup/cvsup-bin-15.3.tar.gz (client including GUI). ftp://ftp.cs.tu-berlin.de/pub/FreeBSD/CVSup/cvsup.nogui-bin-15.3.tar.gz (client without GUI). ftp://ftp.cs.tu-berlin.de/pub/FreeBSD/CVSup/cvsupd-bin-15.3.tar.gz (server). Most users will need only the client. These executables are entirely self-contained, and they will run on any version of FreeBSD from FreeBSD-2.1.0 to FreeBSD-current. In summary, your options for installing CVSup are: FreeBSD-2.2 or later: static binary, port, or package FreeBSD-2.1.6, 2.1.7: static binary or port FreeBSD-2.1.5 or earlier: static binary Configuration CVSup's operation is controlled by a configuration file called the supfile. Beginning with FreeBSD-2.2, there are some sample supfiles in the directory /usr/share/examples/cvsup. These examples are also available from ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-current/src/share/examples/cvsup/ if you are on a pre-2.2 system. The information in a supfile answers the following questions for cvsup: In the following sections, we will construct a typical supfile by answering each of these questions in turn. First, we describe the overall structure of a supfile. A supfile is a text file. Comments begin with # and extend to the end of the line. Lines that are blank and lines that contain only comments are ignored. Each remaining line describes a set of files that the user wishes to receive. The line begins with the name of a collection, a logical grouping of files defined by the server. The name of the collection tells the server which files you want. After the collection name come zero or more fields, separated by white space. These fields answer the questions listed above. There are two types of fields: flag fields and value fields. A flag field consists of a keyword standing alone, e.g., delete or compress. A value field also begins with a keyword, but the keyword is followed without intervening white space by = and a second word. For example, release=cvs is a value field. A supfile typically specifies more than one collection to receive. One way to structure a supfile is to specify all of the relevant fields explicitly for each collection. However, that tends to make the supfile lines quite long, and it is inconvenient because most fields are the same for all of the collections in a supfile. CVSup provides a defaulting mechanism to avoid these problems. Lines beginning with the special pseudo-collection name *default can be used to set flags and values which will be used as defaults for the subsequent collections in the supfile. A default value can be overridden for an individual collection, by specifying a different value with the collection itself. Defaults can also be changed or augmented in mid-supfile by additional *default lines. With this background, we will now proceed to construct a supfile for receiving and updating the main source tree of . Which files do you want to receive? The files available via CVSup are organized into named groups called collections. The collections that are available are described . In this example, we wish to receive the entire main source tree for the FreeBSD system. There is a single large collection src-all which will give us all of that, except the export-controlled cryptography support. Let us assume for this example that we are in the USA or Canada. Then we can get the cryptography code with one additional collection, cvs-crypto. As a first step toward constructing our supfile, we simply list these collections, one per line: src-all cvs-crypto Which version(s) of them do you want? With CVSup, you can receive virtually any version of the sources that ever existed. That is possible because the cvsupd server works directly from the CVS repository, which contains all of the versions. You specify which one of them you want using the tag= and value fields. e very careful to specify any tag= fields correctly. Some tags are valid only for certain collections of files. If you specify an incorrect or misspelled tag, CVSup will delete files which you probably do not want deleted. In particular, use only tag=. for the ports-* collections. The tag= field names a symbolic tag in the repository. There are two kinds of tags, revision tags and branch tags. A revision tag refers to a specific revision. Its meaning stays the same from day to day. A branch tag, on the other hand, refers to the latest revision on a given line of development, at any given time. Because a branch tag does not refer to a specific revision, it may mean something different tomorrow than it means today. Here are the branch tags that users might be interested in: tag=. The main line of development, also known as FreeBSD-current. The . is not punctuation; it is the name of the tag. Valid for all collections. tag=RELENG_2_2 The line of development for FreeBSD-2.2.x, also known as FreeBSD-stable. Not valid for the ports-* collections. tag=RELENG_2_1_0 The line of development for FreeBSD-2.1.x - this branch is largely obsolete. Not valid for the ports-* collections. Here are the revision tags that users might be interested in: tag=RELENG_2_2_6_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.6. Not valid for the ports-* collections. tag=RELENG_2_2_5_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.5. Not valid for the ports-* collections. tag=RELENG_2_2_2_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.2. Not valid for the ports-* collections. tag=RELENG_2_2_1_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.1. Not valid for the ports-* collections. tag=RELENG_2_2_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.0. Not valid for the ports-* collections. tag=RELENG_2_1_7_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.1.7. Not valid for the ports-* collections. tag=RELENG_2_1_6_1_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.1.6.1. Not valid for the ports-* collections. tag=RELENG_2_1_6_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.1.6. Not valid for the ports-* collections. tag=RELENG_2_1_5_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.1.5. Not valid for the ports-* collections. tag=RELENG_2_1_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.1.0. Not valid for the ports-* collections. Be very careful to type the tag name exactly as shown. CVSup cannot distinguish between valid and invalid tags. If you misspell the tag, CVSup will behave as though you had specified a valid tag which happens to refer to no files at all. It will delete your existing sources in that case. When you specify a branch tag, you normally receive the latest versions of the files on that line of development. If you wish to receive some past version, you can do so by specifying a date with the value field. The cvsup1 manual page explains how to do that. For our example, we wish to receive FreeBSD-current. We add this line at the beginning of our supfile: *default tag=. There is an important special case that comes into play if you specify neither a tag= field nor a date= field. In that case, you receive the actual RCS files directly from the server's CVS repository, rather than receiving a particular version. Developers generally prefer this mode of operation. By maintaining a copy of the repository itself on their systems, they gain the ability to browse the revision histories and examine past versions of files. This gain is achieved at a large cost in terms of disk space, however. Where do you want to get them from? We use the host= field to tell cvsup where to obtain its updates. Any of the will do, though you should try to select one that's near to you. In this example, we'll use the primary FreeBSD distribution site, cvsup.FreeBSD.org: *default host=cvsup.FreeBSD.org On any particular run of cvsup, you can override this setting on the command line, with . Where do you want to put them on your own machine? The prefix= field tells cvsup where to put the files it receives. In this example, we will put the source files directly into our main source tree, /usr/src. The src directory is already implicit in the collections we have chosen to receive, so this is the correct specification: *default prefix=/usr Where should cvsup maintain its status files? The cvsup client maintains certain status files in what is called the base directory. These files help CVSup to work more efficiently, by keeping track of which updates you have already received. We will use the standard base directory, /usr/local/etc/cvsup: *default base=/usr/local/etc/cvsup This setting is used by default if it is not specified in the supfile, so we actually do not need the above line. If your base directory does not already exist, now would be a good time to create it. The cvsup client will refuse to run if the base directory does not exist. Miscellaneous supfile settings: There is one more line of boiler plate that normally needs to be present in the supfile: *default release=cvs delete use-rel-suffix compress release=cvs indicates that the server should get its information out of the main FreeBSD CVS repository. This is virtually always the case, but there are other possibilities which are beyond the scope of this discussion. delete gives CVSup permission to delete files. You should always specify this, so that CVSup can keep your source tree fully up to date. CVSup is careful to delete only those files for which it is responsible. Any extra files you happen to have will be left strictly alone. use-rel-suffix is ... arcane. If you really want to know about it, see the cvsup1 manual page. Otherwise, just specify it and do not worry about it. compress enables the use of gzip-style compression on the communication channel. If your network link is T1 speed or faster, you probably should not use compression. Otherwise, it helps substantially. Putting it all together: Here is the entire supfile for our example: *default tag=. *default host=cvsup.FreeBSD.org *default prefix=/usr *default base=/usr/local/etc/cvsup *default release=cvs delete use-rel-suffix compress src-all cvs-crypto Running <application>CVSup</application> You are now ready to try an update. The command line for doing this is quite simple: &prompt.root; cvsup supfile where supfile is of course the name of the supfile you have just created. Assuming you are running under X11, cvsup will display a GUI window with some buttons to do the usual things. Press the go button, and watch it run. Since you are updating your actual /usr/src tree in this example, you will need to run the program as root so that cvsup has the permissions it needs to update your files. Having just created your configuration file, and having never used this program before, that might understandably make you nervous. There is an easy way to do a trial run without touching your precious files. Just create an empty directory somewhere convenient, and name it as an extra argument on the command line: &prompt.root; mkdir /var/tmp/dest &prompt.root; cvsup supfile /var/tmp/dest The directory you specify will be used as the destination directory for all file updates. CVSup will examine your usual files in /usr/src, but it will not modify or delete any of them. Any file updates will instead land in /var/tmp/dest/usr/src. CVSup will also leave its base directory status files untouched when run this way. The new versions of those files will be written into the specified directory. As long as you have read access to /usr/src, you do not even need to be root to perform this kind of trial run. If you are not running X11 or if you just do not like GUIs, you should add a couple of options to the command line when you run cvsup: &prompt.root; cvsup -g -L 2 supfile The tells cvsup not to use its GUI. This is automatic if you are not running X11, but otherwise you have to specify it. The tells cvsup to print out the details of all the file updates it is doing. There are three levels of verbosity, from to . The default is 0, which means total silence except for error messages. There are plenty of other options available. For a brief list of them, type cvsup -H. For more detailed descriptions, see the manual page. Once you are satisfied with the way updates are working, you can arrange for regular runs of cvsup using cron8. Obviously, you should not let cvsup use its GUI when running it from cron. <application>CVSup</application> File Collections The file collections available via CVSup are organized hierarchically. There are a few large collections, and they are divided into smaller sub-collections. Receiving a large collection is equivalent to receiving each of its sub-collections. The hierarchical relationships among collections are reflected by the use of indentation in the list below. The most commonly used collections are src-all, cvs-crypto, and ports-all. The other collections are used only by small groups of people for specialized purposes, and some mirror sites may not carry all of them. cvs-all release=cvs The main FreeBSD CVS repository, excluding the export-restricted cryptography code. distrib release=cvs Files related to the distribution and mirroring of FreeBSD. doc-all release=cvs Sources for the FreeBSD handbook and other documentation. ports-all release=cvs The FreeBSD ports collection. ports-archivers release=cvs Archiving tools. ports-astro release=cvs Astronomical ports. ports-audio release=cvs Sound support. ports-base release=cvs Miscellaneous files at the top of /usr/ports. ports-benchmarks release=cvs Benchmarks. ports-biology release=cvs Biology. ports-cad release=cvs Computer aided design tools. ports-chinese release=cvs Chinese language support. ports-comms release=cvs Communication software. ports-converters release=cvs character code converters. ports-databases release=cvs Databases. ports-devel release=cvs Development utilities. ports-editors release=cvs Editors. ports-emulators release=cvs Emulators for other operating systems. ports-games release=cvs Games. ports-german release=cvs German language support. ports-graphics release=cvs Graphics utilities. ports-japanese release=cvs Japanese language support. ports-korean release=cvs Korean language support. ports-lang release=cvs Programming languages. ports-mail release=cvs Mail software. ports-math release=cvs Numerical computation software. ports-mbone release=cvs MBone applications. ports-misc release=cvs Miscellaneous utilities. ports-net release=cvs Networking software. ports-news release=cvs USENET news software. ports-plan9 release=cvs Various programs from Plan9. ports-print release=cvs Printing software. ports-russian release=cvs Russian language support. ports-security release=cvs Security utilities. ports-shells release=cvs Command line shells. ports-sysutils release=cvs System utilities. ports-textproc release=cvs text processing utilities (does not include desktop publishing). ports-vietnamese release=cvs Vietnamese language support. ports-www release=cvs Software related to the World Wide Web. ports-x11 release=cvs X11 software. src-all release=cvs The main FreeBSD sources, excluding the export-restricted cryptography code. src-base release=cvs Miscellaneous files at the top of /usr/src. src-bin release=cvs User utilities that may be needed in single-user mode (/usr/src/bin). src-contrib release=cvs Utilities and libraries from outside the FreeBSD project, used relatively unmodified (/usr/src/contrib). src-etc release=cvs System configuration files (/usr/src/etc). src-games release=cvs Games (/usr/src/games). src-gnu release=cvs Utilities covered by the GNU Public License (/usr/src/gnu). src-include release=cvs Header files (/usr/src/include). src-kerberosIV release=cvs KerberosIV security package (/usr/src/kerberosIV). src-lib release=cvs Libraries (/usr/src/lib). src-libexec release=cvs System programs normally executed by other programs (/usr/src/libexec). src-release release=cvs Files required to produce a FreeBSD release (/usr/src/release). src-sbin release=cvs System utilities for single-user mode (/usr/src/sbin). src-share release=cvs Files that can be shared across multiple systems (/usr/src/share). src-sys release=cvs The kernel (/usr/src/sys). src-tools release=cvs Various tools for the maintenance of FreeBSD (/usr/src/tools). src-usrbin release=cvs User utilities (/usr/src/usr.bin). src-usrsbin release=cvs System utilities (/usr/src/usr.sbin). www release=cvs The sources for the World Wide Web data. cvs-crypto release=cvs The export-restricted cryptography code. src-crypto release=cvs Export-restricted utilities and libraries from outside the FreeBSD project, used relatively unmodified (/usr/src/crypto). src-eBones release=cvs Kerberos and DES (/usr/src/eBones). src-secure release=cvs DES (/usr/src/secure). distrib release=self The CVSup server's own configuration files. Used by CVSup mirror sites. gnats release=current The GNATS bug-tracking database. mail-archive release=current FreeBSD mailing list archive. www release=current The installed World Wide Web data. Used by WWW mirror sites. Announcements, Questions, and Bug Reports Most FreeBSD-related discussion of CVSup takes place on the &a.hackers;. New versions of the software are announced there, as well as on the &a.announce;. Questions and bug reports should be addressed to the author of the program at cvsup-bugs@polstra.com. Using <command>make world</command> to rebuild your system Contributed by &a.nik;. Once you have synchronised your local source tree against a particular version of FreeBSD (stable, current and so on) you must then use the source tree to rebuild the system. Currently, the best source of information on how to do that is a tutorial available from http://www.nothing-going-on.demon.co.uk/FreeBSD/make-world/make-world.html. A successor to this tutorial will be integrated into the handbook. Contributing to FreeBSD Contributed by &a.jkh;. So you want to contribute something to FreeBSD? That is great! We can always use the help, and FreeBSD is one of those systems that relies on the contributions of its user base in order to survive. Your contributions are not only appreciated, they are vital to FreeBSD's continued growth! Contrary to what some people might also have you believe, you do not need to be a hot-shot programmer or a close personal friend of the FreeBSD core team in order to have your contributions accepted. The FreeBSD Project's development is done by a large and growing number of international contributors whose ages and areas of technical expertise vary greatly, and there is always more work to be done than there are people available to do it. Since the FreeBSD project is responsible for an entire operating system environment (and its installation) rather than just a kernel or a few scattered utilities, our TODO list also spans a very wide range of tasks, from documentation, beta testing and presentation to highly specialized types of kernel development. No matter what your skill level, there is almost certainly something you can do to help the project! Commercial entities engaged in FreeBSD-related enterprises are also encouraged to contact us. Need a special extension to make your product work? You will find us receptive to your requests, given that they are not too outlandish. Working on a value-added product? Please let us know! We may be able to work cooperatively on some aspect of it. The free software world is challenging a lot of existing assumptions about how software is developed, sold, and maintained throughout its life cycle, and we urge you to at least give it a second look. What Is Needed The following list of tasks and sub-projects represents something of an amalgam of the various core team TODO lists and user requests we have collected over the last couple of months. Where possible, tasks have been ranked by degree of urgency. If you are interested in working on one of the tasks you see here, send mail to the coordinator listed by clicking on their names. If no coordinator has been appointed, maybe you would like to volunteer? High priority tasks The following tasks are considered to be urgent, usually because they represent something that is badly broken or sorely needed: 3-stage boot issues. Overall coordination: &a.hackers; Autodetect memory over 64MB properly. Move userconfig (-c) into 3rd stage boot. Do WinNT compatible drive tagging so that the 3rd stage can provide an accurate mapping of BIOS geometries for disks. Filesystem problems. Overall coordination: &a.fs; Fix the MSDOS file system. Clean up and document the nullfs filesystem code. Coordinator: &a.gibbs; Fix the union file system. Coordinator: &a.dyson; Implement kernel and user vm86 support. Coordinator: &a.hackers; Implement Int13 vm86 disk driver. Coordinator: &a.hackers; SCSI driver issues. Overall coordination: &a.hackers; Support tagged queuing generically. Requires a rewrite of how we do our command queuing, but we need this anyway to for prioritized I/O (CD-R writers/scanners). Better error handling (Busy status and retries). Merged Scatter-Gather list creation code. Kernel issues. Overall coordination: &a.hackers; Complete the eisaconf conversion of all existing drivers. Change all interrupt routines to take a (void *) instead of using unit numbers. Merge EISA/PCI/ISA interrupt registration code. Split PCI/EISA/ISA probes out from drivers like bt742a.c (WIP) Fix the syscons ALT-Fn/vt switching hangs. Coordinator: &a.sos; Rewrite the Intel Etherexpress 16 driver. Merge the 3c509 and 3c590 drivers (essentially provide a PCI probe for ep.c). Support Adaptec 3985 (first as a simple 3 channel SCSI card) Coordinator: &a.gibbs; Support Advansys SCSI controller products. Coordinator: &a.gibbs; Medium priority tasks The following tasks need to be done, but not with any particular urgency: Port AFS (Andrew File System) to FreeBSD Coordinator: Alexander Seth Jones ajones@ctron.com MCA support? This should be finalized one way or the other. Full LKM based driver support/Configuration Manager. Devise a way to do all LKM registration without ld. This means some kind of symbol table in the kernel. Write a configuration manager (in the 3rd stage boot?) that probes your hardware in a sane manner, keeps only the LKMs required for your hardware, etc. PCMCIA/PCCARD. Coordinators: &a.nate; and &a.phk; Documentation! Reliable operation of the pcic driver (needs testing). Recognizer and handler for sio.c (mostly done). Recognizer and handler for ed.c (mostly done). Recognizer and handler for ep.c (mostly done). User-mode recognizer and handler (partially done). Advanced Power Management. Coordinators: &a.nate; and &a.phk; APM sub-driver (mostly done). IDE/ATA disk sub-driver (partially done). syscons/pcvt sub-driver. Integration with the PCMCIA/PCCARD drivers (suspend/resume). Low priority tasks The following tasks are purely cosmetic or represent such an investment of work that it is not likely that anyone will get them done anytime soon: The first 20 items are from Terry Lambert terry@lambert.org Ability to make BIOS calls from protected mode using V86 mode on the processor and return the results via a mapped interrupt IPC mechanism to the protected mode caller. Drivers built into the kernel that use the BIOS call mechanism to allow them to be independent of the actual underlying hardware the same way that DOS is independent of the underlying hardware. This includes NetWork and ASPI drivers loaded in DOS prior to BSD being loaded by a DOS-based loader program, which means potential polling, which means DOS-not-busy interrupt generation for V86 machines by the protected mode kernel. An image format that allows tagging of such drivers data and text areas in the default kernel executable so that that portion of the kernel address space may be recovered at a later time, after hardware specific protected mode drivers have been loaded and activated. This includes separation of BIOS based drivers from each other, since it is better to run with a BIOS based driver in all cases than to not run at all. Abstraction of the bus interface mechanism. Currently, PCMCIA, EISA, and PCI busses are assumed to be bridged from ISA. This is not something which should be assumed. A configuration manager that knows about PNP events, including power management events, insertion, extraction, and bus (PNP ISA and PCMCIA bridging chips) vs. card level event management. A topological sort mechanism for assigning reassignable addresses that do not collide with other reassignable and non-reassignable device space resource usage by fixed devices. A registration based mechanism for hardware services registration. Specifically, a device centric registration mechanism for timer and sound and other system critical service providers. Consider Timer2 and Timer0 and speaker services as one example of a single monolithic service provider. A kernel exported symbol space in the kernel data space accessible by an LKM loader mechanism that does relocation and symbol space manipulation. The intent of this interface is to support the ability to demand load and unload kernel modules. NetWare Server (protected mode ODI driver) loader and subservices to allow the use of ODI card drivers supplied with network cards. The same thing for NDIS drivers and NetWare SCSI drivers. An "upgrade system" option that works on Linux boxes instead of just previous rev FreeBSD boxes. Splitting of the console driver into abstraction layers, both to make it easier to port and to kill the X and ThinkPad and PS/2 mouse and LED and console switching and bouncing NumLock problems once and for all. Other kernel emulation environments for other foreign drivers as opportunity permits. SCO and Solaris are good candidates, followed by UnixWare, etc. Processor emulation environments for execution of foreign binaries. This is easier than it sounds if the system call interface does not change much. Streams to allow the use of commercial streams drivers. Kernel multithreading (requires kernel preemption). Symmetric Multiprocessing with kernel preemption (requires kernel preemption). A concerted effort at support for portable computers. This is somewhat handled by changing PCMCIA bridging rules and power management event handling. But there are things like detecting internal vs. external display and picking a different screen resolution based on that fact, not spinning down the disk if the machine is in dock, and allowing dock-based cards to disappear without affecting the machines ability to boot (same issue for PCMCIA). Reorganization of the source tree for multiple platform ports. A make world that "makes the world" (rename the current one to make regress if that is all it is good for). A 4M (preferably smaller!) memory footprint. Smaller tasks Most of the tasks listed in the previous sections require either a considerable investment of time or an in-depth knowledge of the FreeBSD kernel (or both). However, there are also many useful tasks which are suitable for "weekend hackers", or people without programming skills. If you run FreeBSD-current and have a good Internet connection, there is a machine current.freebsd.org which builds a full release once a day — every now and again, try and install the latest release from it and report any failures in the process. Read the freebsd-bugs mailing list. There might be a problem you can comment constructively on or with patches you can test. Or you could even try to fix one of the problems yourself. Read through the FAQ and Handbook periodically. If anything is badly explained, out of date or even just completely wrong, let us know. Even better, send us a fix (SGML is not difficult to learn, but there is no objection to ASCII submissions). Help translate FreeBSD documentation into your native language (if not already available) — just send an email to &a.doc; asking if anyone is working on it. Note that you are not committing yourself to translating every single FreeBSD document by doing this — in fact, the documentation most in need of translation is the installation instructions. Read the freebsd-questions mailing list and the newsgroup comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.misc occasionally (or even regularly). It can be very satisfying to share your expertise and help people solve their problems; sometimes you may even learn something new yourself! These forums can also be a source of ideas for things to work on. If you know of any bugfixes which have been successfully applied to -current but have not been merged into -stable after a decent interval (normally a couple of weeks), send the committer a polite reminder. Move contributed software to src/contrib in the source tree. Make sure code in src/contrib is up to date. Look for year 2000 bugs (and fix any you find!) Build the source tree (or just part of it) with extra warnings enabled and clean up the warnings. Fix warnings for ports which do deprecated things like using gets() or including malloc.h. If you have contributed any ports, send your patches back to the original author (this will make your life easier when they bring out the next version) Suggest further tasks for this list! How to Contribute Contributions to the system generally fall into one or more of the following 6 categories: Bug reports and general commentary An idea or suggestion of general technical interest should be mailed to the &a.hackers;. Likewise, people with an interest in such things (and a tolerance for a high volume of mail!) may subscribe to the hackers mailing list by sending mail to &a.majordomo;. See for more information about this and other mailing lists. If you find a bug or are submitting a specific change, please report it using the send-pr1program or its WEB-based equivalent. Try to fill-in each field of the bug report. Unless they exceed 65KB, include any patches directly in the report. Consider compressing them and using uuencode1 if they exceed 20KB. After filing a report, you should receive confirmation along with a tracking number. Keep this tracking number so that you can update us with details about the problem by sending mail to bug-followup@FreeBSD.ORG. Use the number as the message subject, e.g. "Re: kern/3377". Additional information for any bug report should be submitted this way. If you do not receive confirmation in a timely fashion (3 days to a week, depending on your email connection) or are, for some reason, unable to use the send-pr1 command, then you may ask someone to file it for you by sending mail to the &a.bugs;. Changes to the documentation Changes to the documentation are overseen by the &a.doc;. Send submissions and changes (even small ones are welcome!) using send-pr as described in . Changes to existing source code An addition or change to the existing source code is a somewhat trickier affair and depends a lot on how far out of date you are with the current state of the core FreeBSD development. There is a special on-going release of FreeBSD known as FreeBSD-current which is made available in a variety of ways for the convenience of developers working actively on the system. See for more information about getting and using FreeBSD-current. Working from older sources unfortunately means that your changes may sometimes be too obsolete or too divergent for easy re-integration into FreeBSD. Chances of this can be minimized somewhat by subscribing to the &a.announce; and the &a.current; lists, where discussions on the current state of the system take place. Assuming that you can manage to secure fairly up-to-date sources to base your changes on, the next step is to produce a set of diffs to send to the FreeBSD maintainers. This is done with the diff1 command, with the context diff form being preferred. For example: &prompt.user; diff -c oldfile newfile or &prompt.user; diff -c -r olddir newdir would generate such a set of context diffs for the given source file or directory hierarchy. See the man page for diff1 for more details. Once you have a set of diffs (which you may test with the patch1 command), you should submit them for inclusion with FreeBSD. Use the send-pr1 program as described in . Do not just send the diffs to the &a.hackers; or they will get lost! We greatly appreciate your submission (this is a volunteer project!); because we are busy, we may not be able to address it immediately, but it will remain in the pr database until we do. If you feel it appropriate (e.g. you have added, deleted, or renamed files), bundle your changes into a tar file and run the uuencode1 program on it. Shar archives are also welcome. If your change is of a potentially sensitive nature, e.g. you are unsure of copyright issues governing its further distribution or you are simply not ready to release it without a tighter review first, then you should send it to &a.core; directly rather than submitting it with send-pr1. The core mailing list reaches a much smaller group of people who do much of the day-to-day work on FreeBSD. Note that this group is also very busy and so you should only send mail to them where it is truly necessary. Please refer to man 9 intro and man 9 style for some information on coding style. We would appreciate it if you were at least aware of this information before submitting code. New code or major value-added packages In the rare case of a significant contribution of a large body work, or the addition of an important new feature to FreeBSD, it becomes almost always necessary to either send changes as uuencode'd tar files or upload them to our ftp site ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD/incoming. When working with large amounts of code, the touchy subject of copyrights also invariably comes up. Acceptable copyrights for code included in FreeBSD are: The BSD copyright. This copyright is most preferred due to its no strings attached nature and general attractiveness to commercial enterprises. Far from discouraging such commercial use, the FreeBSD Project actively encourages such participation by commercial interests who might eventually be inclined to invest something of their own into FreeBSD. The GNU Public License, or GPL. This license is not quite as popular with us due to the amount of extra effort demanded of anyone using the code for commercial purposes, but given the sheer quantity of GPL'd code we currently require (compiler, assembler, text formatter, etc) it would be silly to refuse additional contributions under this license. Code under the GPL also goes into a different part of the tree, that being /sys/gnu or /usr/src/gnu, and is therefore easily identifiable to anyone for whom the GPL presents a problem. Contributions coming under any other type of copyright must be carefully reviewed before their inclusion into FreeBSD will be considered. Contributions for which particularly restrictive commercial copyrights apply are generally rejected, though the authors are always encouraged to make such changes available through their own channels. To place a BSD-style copyright on your work, include the following text at the very beginning of every source code file you wish to protect, replacing the text between the %% with the appropriate information. Copyright (c) %%proper_years_here%% %%your_name_here%%, %%your_state%% %%your_zip%%. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer as the first lines of this file unmodified. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY %%your_name_here%% ``AS IS'' AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL %%your_name_here%% BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. $Id$ For your convenience, a copy of this text can be found in /usr/share/examples/etc/bsd-style-copyright. Porting an existing piece of free software Contributed by &a.jkh;, &a.gpalmer;, &a.asami; and &a.obrien;.28 August 1996. The porting of freely available software, while perhaps not as gratifying as developing your own from scratch, is still a vital part of FreeBSD's growth and of great usefulness to those who would not otherwise know where to turn for it. All ported software is organized into a carefully organized hierarchy known as the ports collection. The collection enables a new user to get a quick and complete overview of what is available for FreeBSD in an easy-to-compile form. It also saves considerable space by not actually containing the majority of the sources being ported, but merely those differences required for running under FreeBSD. What follows are some guidelines for creating a new port for FreeBSD 3.x. The bulk of the work is done by /usr/share/mk/bsd.port.mk, which all port Makefiles include. Please refer to that file for more details on the inner workings of the ports collection. Even if you don't hack Makefiles daily, it is well commented, and you will still gain much knowledge from it. Before Starting the Port Only a fraction of the overridable variables (${..}) are mentioned in this document. Most (if not all) are documented at the start of bsd.port.mk. This file uses a non-standard tab setting. Emacs and Vim should recognize the setting on loading the file. vi or ex can be set to using the correct value by typing :set tabstop=4 once the file has been loaded. You may come across code that needs modifications or conditional compilation based upon what version of UNIX it is running under. If you need to make such changes to the code for conditional compilation, make sure you make the changes as general as possible so that we can back-port code to FreeBSD 1.x systems and cross-port to other BSD systems such as 4.4BSD from CSRG, BSD/386, 386BSD, NetBSD, and OpenBSD. The preferred way to tell 4.3BSD/Reno (1990) and newer versions of the BSD code apart is by using the BSD macro defined in <sys/param.h>. Hopefully that file is already included; if not, add the code: #ifdef (defined(__unix__) || defined(unix)) && !defined(USG) #include <sys/param.h> #endif to the proper place in the .c file. We believe that every system that defines these to symbols has sys/param.h. If you find a system that doesn't, we would like to know. Please send mail to &a.ports;. Another way is to use the GNU Autoconf style of doing this: #ifdef HAVE_SYS_PARAM_H #include <sys/param.h> #endif Don't forget to add -DHAVE_SYS_PARAM_H to the CFLAGS in the Makefile for this method. Once you have sys/param.h included, you may use: #if (defined(BSD) && (BSD >= 199103)) to detect if the code is being compiled on a 4.3 Net2 code base or newer (e.g. FreeBSD 1.x, 4.3/Reno, NetBSD 0.9, 386BSD, BSD/386 1.1 and below). Use: #if (defined(BSD) && (BSD >= 199306)) to detect if the code is being compiled on a 4.4 code base or newer (e.g. FreeBSD 2.x, 4.4, NetBSD 1.0, BSD/386 2.0 or above). The value of the BSD macro is 199506 for the 4.4BSD-Lite2 code base. This is stated for informational purposes only. It should not be used to distinguish between version of FreeBSD based only on 4.4-Lite vs. versions that have merged in changes from 4.4-Lite2. The __FreeBSD__ macro should be used instead. Use sparingly: __FreeBSD__ is defined in all versions of FreeBSD. Use it if the change you are making ONLY affects FreeBSD. Porting gotchas like the use of sys_errlist[] vs strerror() are Berkeleyisms, not FreeBSD changes. In FreeBSD 2.x, __FreeBSD__ is defined to be 2. In earlier versions, it is 1. Later versions will bump it to match their major version number. If you need to tell the difference between a FreeBSD 1.x system and a FreeBSD 2.x or 3.x system, usually the right answer is to use the BSD macros described above. If there actually is a FreeBSD specific change (such as special shared library options when using ld) then it is OK to use __FreeBSD__ and #if __FreeBSD__ > 1 to detect a FreeBSD 2.x and later system. If you need more granularity in detecting FreeBSD systems since 2.0-RELEASE you can use the following: #if __FreeBSD__ >= 2 #include <osreldate.h> # if __FreeBSD_version >= 199504 /* 2.0.5+ release specific code here */ # endif #endif Release _FreeBSD_version 2.0-RELEASE 119411 2.1-currents 199501, 199503 2.0.5-RELEASE 199504 2.2-current before 2.1 199508 2.1.0-RELEASE 199511 2.2-current before 2.1.5 199512 2.1.5-RELEASE 199607 2.2-current before 2.1.6 199608 2.1.6-RELEASE 199612 2.1.7-RELEASE 199612 2.2-RELEASE 220000 2.2.1-RELEASE 220000 (no change) 2.2-STABLE after 2.2.1-RELEASE 220000 (no change) 2.2-STABLE after texinfo-3.9 221001 2.2-STABLE after top 221002 2.2.2-RELEASE 222000 2.2-STABLE after 2.2.2-RELEASE 222001 2.2.5-RELEASE 225000 2.2-STABLE after 2.2.5-RELEASE 225001 2.2-STABLE after ldconfig -R merge 225002 2.2.6-RELEASE 226000 2.2.7-RELEASE 227000 2.2-STABLE after 2.2.7-RELEASE 227001 3.0-current before mount(2) change 300000 3.0-current as of November 1996 300001 Note that 2.2-STABLE sometimes identifies itself as 2.2.5-STABLE after the 2.2.5-RELEASE. The pattern used to be year followed by the month, but we decided to change it to a more straightforward major/minor system starting from 2.2. This is because the parallel development on several branches made it infeasible to classify the releases simply by their real release dates. If you are making a port now, you don't have to worry about old -current's; they are listed here just for your reference. In the hundreds of ports that have been done, there have only been one or two cases where __FreeBSD__ should have been used. Just because an earlier port screwed up and used it in the wrong place does not mean you should do so too. Quick Porting This section tells you how to do a quick port. In many cases, it is not enough, but we will see. First, get the original tarball and put it into ${DISTDIR}, which defaults to /usr/ports/distfiles. The following assumes that the software compiled out-of-the-box, i.e., there was absolutely no change required for the port to work on your FreeBSD box. If you needed to change something, you will have to refer to the next section too. Writing the <filename>Makefile</filename> The minimal Makefile would look something like this: # New ports collection makefile for: oneko # Version required: 1.1b # Date created: 5 December 1994 # Whom: asami # # $Id: handbook.sgml,v 1.53 1998-10-26 23:53:47 nik Exp $ # DISTNAME= oneko-1.1b CATEGORIES= games MASTER_SITES= ftp://ftp.cs.columbia.edu/archives/X11R5/contrib/ MAINTAINER= asami@FreeBSD.ORG MAN1= oneko.1 MANCOMPRESSED= yes USE_IMAKE= yes .include <bsd.port.mk> See if you can figure it out. Do not worry about the contents of the $Id$ line, it will be filled in automatically by CVS when the port is imported to our main ports tree. You can find a more detailed example in the section. Writing the description files There are three required description files that are required for any port, whether they actually package or not. They are COMMENT, DESCR, and PLIST, and reside in the pkg subdirectory. <filename>COMMENT</filename> This is the one-line description of the port. Please do not include the package name (or version number of the software) in the comment. Here is an example: A cat chasing a mouse all over the screen. <filename>DESCR</filename> This is a longer description of the port. One to a few paragraphs concisely explaining what the port does is sufficient. This is not a manual nor an in-depth description on how to use or compile the port. In particular, please do not just copy the README file here, unless, of course, it is a concise description of the port. It is recommended that you sign the name at the end of this file, as in: This is a port of oneko, in which a cat chases a poor mouse all over the screen. : (etc.) - Satoshi asami@cs.berkeley.edu <filename>PLIST</filename> This file lists all the files installed by the port. It is also called the `packing list' because the package is generated by packing the files listed here. The pathnames are relative to the installation prefix (usually /usr/local or /usr/X11R6). Also it is assumed the manpages will be compressed. Here is a small example: bin/oneko man/man1/oneko.1.gz lib/X11/app-defaults/Oneko lib/X11/oneko/cat1.xpm lib/X11/oneko/cat2.xpm lib/X11/oneko/mouse.xpm Refer to the pkg_create1 man page for details on the packing list. Creating the checksum file Just type make makesum. The ports make rules will automatically generate the file files/md5. Testing the port You should make sure that the port rules do exactly what you want it to do, including packaging up the port. Try doing make install, make package and then make deinstall and see if all the files and directories are correctly deleted. Then do a pkg_add `make package-name`.tgz and see if everything re-appears and works correctly. Then do another make deinstall and then make reinstall; make package to make sure you haven't included in the packing list any files that are not installed by your port. Submitting the port Now that you are happy with your port, the only thing remaining is to put it in the main FreeBSD ports tree and make everybody else happy about it too. To accomplish this, pack the necessary files (everything described in this section — in particular do not include the original source tarball, the work subdirectory or the package) into a .tar.gz file, stick it in the directory ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD/incoming/ and send mail to us using send-pr1 (please classify it as category ports and class change-request). There is no need to upload the package, we will build it by ourselves. We will take a look, get back to you if necessary, and put it in the tree. Your name will also appear in the list of Additional FreeBSD contributors on the FreeBSD Handbook and other files. Isn't that great?!? :) Slow Porting Ok, so it was not that simple, and the port required some modifications to get it to work. In this section, we will explain, step by step, how to modify it to get it to work with the ports paradigm. How things work First, this is the sequence of events which occurs when the user first types make in your port's directory, and you may find that having bsd.port.mk in another window while you read this really helps to understand it. But do not worry if you do not really understand what bsd.port.mk is doing, not many people do... :> The fetch target is run. The fetch target is responsible for making sure that the tarball exists locally in ${DISTDIR}. If fetch cannot find the required files in ${DISTDIR} it will look up the URL ${MASTER_SITES}, which is set in the Makefile, as well as our main ftp site at ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/distfiles/, where we put sanctioned distfiles as backup. It will then attempt to fetch the named distribution file with ${FETCH}, assuming that the requesting site has direct access to the Internet. If that succeeds, it will save the file in ${DISTDIR} for future use and proceed. The extract target is run. It looks for your ports' distribution file in ${DISTDIR} (typically a gzip'd tarball) and unpacks it into a temporary subdirectory specified by ${WRKDIR} (defaults to work). The patch target is run. First, any patches defined in ${PATCHFILES} are applied. Second, if any patches are found in ${PATCHDIR} (defaults to the patches subdirectory), they are applied at this time in alphabetical order. The configure target is run. This can do any one of many different things. If it exists, scripts/configure is run. If ${HAS_CONFIGURE} or ${GNU_CONFIGURE} is set, ${WRKSRC}/configure is run. If ${USE_IMAKE} is set, ${XMKMF} (default: xmkmf -a) is run. The build target is run. This is responsible for descending into the ports' private working directory (${WRKSRC}) and building it. If ${USE_GMAKE} is set, GNU make will be used, otherwise the system make will be used. The above are the default actions. In addition, you can define targets pre-something or post-something, or put scripts with those names, in the scripts subdirectory, and they will be run before or after the default actions are done. For example, if you have a post-extract target defined in your Makefile, and a file pre-build in the scripts subdirectory, the post-extract target will be called after the regular extraction actions, and the pre-build script will be executed before the default build rules are done. It is recommended that you use Makefile targets if the actions are simple enough, because it will be easier for someone to figure out what kind of non-default action the port requires. The default actions are done by the bsd.port.mk targets do-something. For example, the commands to extract a port are in the target do-extract. If you are not happy with the default target, you can fix it by redefining the do-something target in your Makefile. The main targets (e.g., extract, configure, etc.) do nothing more than make sure all the stages up to that one is completed and call the real targets or scripts, and they are not intended to be changed. If you want to fix the extraction, fix do-extract, but never ever touch extract! Now that you understand what goes on when the user types make, let us go through the recommended steps to create the perfect port. Getting the original sources Get the original sources (normally) as a compressed tarball (foo.tar.gz or foo.tar.Z) and copy it into ${DISTDIR}. Always use mainstream sources when and where you can. If you cannot find a ftp/http site that is well-connected to the net, or can only find sites that have irritatingly non-standard formats, we can house it ourselves by putting it on ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/distfiles/LOCAL_PORTS/ as the last resort. Please refer to this location as ${MASTER_SITE_LOCAL}. Send mail to the &a.ports;if you are not sure what to do. If your port requires some additional `patches' that are available on the Internet, fetch them too and put them in ${DISTDIR}. Do not worry if they come from site other than where you got the main source tarball, we have a way to handle these situations (see the description of below). Modifying the port Unpack a copy of the tarball in a private directory and make whatever changes are necessary to get the port to compile properly under the current version of FreeBSD. Keep careful track of everything you do, as you will be automating the process shortly. Everything, including the deletion, addition or modification of files should be doable using an automated script or patch file when your port is finished. If your port requires significant user interaction/customization to compile or install, you should take a look at one of Larry Wall's classic Configure scripts and perhaps do something similar yourself. The goal of the new ports collection is to make each port as plug-and-play as possible for the end-user while using a minimum of disk space. Unless explicitly stated, patch files, scripts, and other files you have created and contributed to the FreeBSD ports collection are assumed to be covered by the standard BSD copyright conditions. Patching In the preparation of the port, files that have been added or changed can be picked up with a recursive diff for later feeding to patch. Each set of patches you wish to apply should be collected into a file named patch-xx where xx denotes the sequence in which the patches will be applied — these are done in alphabetical order, thus aa first, ab second and so on. These files should be stored in ${PATCHDIR}, from where they will be automatically applied. All patches should be relative to ${WRKSRC} (generally the directory your port's tarball unpacks itself into, that being where the build is done). To make fixes and upgrades easier you should avoid having more than one patch fix the same file (e.g., patch-aa and patch-ab both changing ${WRKSRC}/foobar.c). Configuring Include any additional customization commands to your configure script and save it in the scripts subdirectory. As mentioned above, you can also do this as Makefile targets and/or scripts with the name pre-configure or post-configure. Handling user input If your port requires user input to build, configure or install, then set IS_INTERACTIVE in your Makefile. This will allow overnight builds to skip your port if the user sets the variable BATCH in his environment (and if the user sets the variable INTERACTIVE, then only those ports requiring interaction are built). Configuring the Makefile Configuring the Makefile is pretty simple, and again we suggest that you look at existing examples before starting. Also, there is a in this handbook, so take a look and please follow the ordering of variables and sections in that template to make your port easier for others to read. Now, consider the following problems in sequence as you design your new Makefile: The original source Does it live in ${DISTDIR} as a standard gzip'd tarball? If so, you can go on to the next step. If not, you should look at overriding any of the ${EXTRACT_CMD}, ${EXTRACT_BEFORE_ARGS}, ${EXTRACT_AFTER_ARGS}, ${EXTRACT_SUFX}, or ${DISTFILES} variables, depending on how alien a format your port's distribution file is. (The most common case is EXTRACT_SUFX=.tar.Z, when the tarball is condensed by regular compress, not gzip.) In the worst case, you can simply create your own do-extract target to override the default, though this should be rarely, if ever, necessary. <makevar>DISTNAME</makevar> You should set ${DISTNAME} to be the base name of your port. The default rules expect the distribution file list (${DISTFILES}) to be named ${DISTNAME}${EXTRACT_SUFX} by default which, if it is a normal tarball, is going to be something like foozolix-1.0.tar.gz for a setting of DISTNAME=foozolix-1.0 . The default rules also expect the tarball(s) to extract into a subdirectory called work/${DISTNAME}, e.g. work/foozolix-1.0/. All this behavior can be overridden, of course, it simply represents the most common time-saving defaults. For a port requiring multiple distribution files, simply set ${DISTFILES} explicitly. If only a subset of ${DISTFILES} are actual extractable archives, then set them up in ${EXTRACT_ONLY}, which will override the ${DISTFILES} list when it comes to extraction, and the rest will be just left in ${DISTDIR} for later use. <makevar>CATEGORIES</makevar> When a package is created, it is put under /usr/ports/packages/All and links are made from one or more subdirectories of /usr/ports/packages. The names of these subdirectories are specified by the variable ${CATEGORIES}. It is intended to make life easier for the user when he is wading through the pile of packages on the ftp site or the CD-ROM. Please take a look at the existing categories (you can find them in the ports page) and pick the ones that are suitable for your port. If your port truly belongs to something that is different from all the existing ones, you can even create a new category name. <makevar>MASTER_SITES</makevar> Record the directory part of the ftp/http-URL pointing at the original tarball in ${MASTER_SITES}. Do not forget the trailing slash (/)! The make macros will try to use this specification for grabbing the distribution file with ${FETCH} if they cannot find it already on the system. It is recommended that you put multiple sites on this list, preferably from different continents. This will safeguard against wide-area network problems, and we are even planning to add support for automatically determining the closest master site and fetching from there! If the original tarball is part of one of the following popular archives: X-contrib, GNU, Perl CPAN, TeX CTAN, or Linux Sunsite, you refer to those sites in an easy compact form using MASTER_SITE_XCONTRIB, MASTER_SITE_GNU, MASTER_SITE_PERL_CPAN, MASTER_SITE_TEX_CTAN, and MASTER_SITE_SUNSITE. Simply set MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR to the path with in the archive. Here is an example: MASTER_SITES= ${MASTER_SITE_XCONTRIB} MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR= applications The user can also set the MASTER_SITE_* variables in /etc/make.conf to override our choices, and use their favorite mirrors of these popular archives instead. <makevar>PATCHFILES</makevar> If your port requires some additional patches that are available by ftp or http, set ${PATCHFILES} to the names of the files and ${PATCH_SITES} to the URL of the directory that contains them (the format is the same as ${MASTER_SITES}). If the patch is not relative to the top of the source tree (i.e., ${WKRSRC}) because it contains some extra pathnames, set ${PATCH_DIST_STRIP} accordingly. For instance, if all the pathnames in the patch has an extra foozolix-1.0/ in front of the filenames, then set PATCH_DIST_STRIP=-p1. Do not worry if the patches are compressed, they will be decompressed automatically if the filenames end with .gz or .Z. If the patch is distributed with some other files, such as documentation, in a gzip'd tarball, you can't just use ${PATCHFILES}. If that is the case, add the name and the location of the patch tarball to ${DISTFILES} and ${MASTER_SITES}. Then, from the pre-patch target, apply the patch either by running the patch command from there, or copying the patch file into the ${PATCHDIR} directory and calling it patch-xx. Note the tarball will have been extracted alongside the regular source by then, so there is no need to explicitly extract it if it is a regular gzip'd or compress'd tarball. If you do the latter, take extra care not to overwrite something that already exists in that directory. Also do not forget to add a command to remove the copied patch in the pre-clean target. <makevar>MAINTAINER</makevar> Set your mail-address here. Please. :) For detailed description of the responsibility of maintainers, refer to section. Dependencies Many ports depend on other ports. There are five variables that you can use to ensure that all the required bits will be on the user's machine. <makevar>LIB_DEPENDS</makevar> This variable specifies the shared libraries this port depends on. It is a list of lib:dir pairs where lib is the name of the shared library, and dir is the directory in which to find it in case it is not available. For example, LIB_DEPENDS= jpeg\\.6\\.:${PORTSDIR}/graphics/jpeg will check for a shared jpeg library with major version 6, and descend into the graphics/jpeg subdirectory of your ports tree to build and install it if it is not found. The lib part is just an argument given to ldconfig -r | grep, so periods should be escaped by two backslashes like in the example above. The dependency is checked from within the extract target. Also, the name of the dependency is put in to the package so that pkg_add will automatically install it if it is not on the user's system. <makevar>RUN_DEPENDS</makevar> This variable specifies executables or files this port depends on during run-time. It is a list of path:dir pairs where path is the name of the executable or file, and dir is the directory in which to find it in case it is not available. If path starts with a slash (/), it is treated as a file and its existence is tested with test -e; otherwise, it is assumed to be an executable, and which -s is used to determine if the program exists in the user's search path. For example, RUN_DEPENDS= ${PREFIX}/etc/innd:${PORTSDIR}/news/inn \ wish:${PORTSDIR}/x11/tk will check if the file /usr/local/etc/innd exists, and build and install it from the news/inn subdirectory of the ports tree if it is not found. It will also see if an executable called wish is in your search path, and descend into the x11/tk subdirectory of your ports tree to build and install it if it is not found. In this case, innd is actually an executable; if an executable is in a place that is not expected to be in a normal user's search path, you should use the full pathname. The dependency is checked from within the install target. Also, the name of the dependency is put in to the package so that pkg_add will automatically install it if it is not on the user's system. <makevar>BUILD_DEPENDS</makevar> This variable specifies executables or files this port requires to build. Like RUN_DEPENDS, it is a list of path:dir pairs. For example, BUILD_DEPENDS= unzip:${PORTSDIR}/archivers/unzip will check for an executable called unzip, and descend into the archivers/unzip subdirectory of your ports tree to build and install it if it is not found. build here means everything from extracting to compilation. The dependency is checked from within the extract target. <makevar>FETCH_DEPENDS</makevar> This variable specifies executables or files this port requires to fetch. Like the previous two, it is a list of path:dir pairs. For example, FETCH_DEPENDS= ncftp2:${PORTSDIR}/net/ncftp2 will check for an executable called ncftp2, and descend into the net/ncftp2 subdirectory of your ports tree to build and install it if it is not found. The dependency is checked from within the fetch target. <makevar>DEPENDS</makevar> If there is a dependency that does not fall into either of the above four categories, or your port requires to have the source of the other port extracted (i.e., having them installed is not enough), then use this variable. This is just a list of directories, as there is nothing to check, unlike the previous four. Building mechanisms If your package uses GNU make, set USE_GMAKE=yes. If your package uses GNU configure, set GNU_CONFIGURE=yes. If you want to give some extra arguments to GNU configure (other than the default --prefix=${PREFIX}), set those extra arguments in ${CONFIGURE_ARGS}. If your package is an X application that creates Makefiles from Imakefiles using imake, then set USE_IMAKE=yes. This will cause the configure stage to automatically do an xmkmf -a. If the flag is a problem for your port, set XMKMF=xmkmf. If your port's source Makefile has something else than all as the main build target, set ${ALL_TARGET} accordingly. Same goes for install and ${INSTALL_TARGET}. <makevar>NO_INSTALL_MANPAGES</makevar> If the port uses imake but does not understand the install.man target, NO_INSTALL_MANPAGES=yes should be set. In addition, the author of the original port should be shot. :> Ports that require Motif There are many programs that require a Motif library (available from several commercial vendors, while there is (at least) one effort to create a free clone) to compile. Since it is a popular toolkit and their licenses usually permit redistribution of statically linked binaries, we have made special provisions for handling ports that require Motif in a way that we can easily compile binaries linked either dynamically or statically. <makevar>REQUIRES_MOTIF</makevar> If your port requires Motif, define this variable in the Makefile. This will prevent people who don't own a copy of Motif from even attempting to build it. <makevar>${MOTIFLIB}</makevar> This variable will be set by bsd.port.mk to be the appropriate reference to the Motif library. Please patch the source to use this wherever the Motif library is referenced in the Makefile or Imakefile. There are two common cases: If the port refers to the Motif library as in its Makefile or Imakefile, simply substitute ${MOTIFLIB} for it. If the port uses XmClientLibs in its Imakefile, change it to ${MOTIFLIB} ${XTOOLLIB} ${XLIB}. ${MOTIFLIB} (usually) expands to -L/usr/X11R6/lib -lXm or /usr/X11R6/lib/libXm.a, so there is no need to add or in front. Info files The new version of texinfo (included in 2.2.2-RELEASE and onwards) contains a utility called install-info to add and delete entries to the dir file. If your port installs any info documents, please follow these instructions so your port/package will correctly update the user's ${PREFIX}/info/dir file. (Sorry for the length of this section, but it is imperative to weave all the info files together. If done correctly, it will produce a beautiful listing, so please bear with me! :) First, this is what you (as a porter) need to know: &prompt.user; install-info --help install-info [OPTION]... [INFO-FILE [DIR-FILE]] Install INFO-FILE in the Info directory file DIR-FILE. Options: --delete Delete existing entries in INFO-FILE; don't insert any new entries. : --entry=TEXT Insert TEXT as an Info directory entry. : --section=SEC Put this file's entries in section SEC of the directory. : This program will not actually install info files; it merely inserts or deletes entries in the dir file. Here's a seven-step procedure to convert ports to use install-info. I will use editors/emacs as an example. Look at the texinfo sources and make a patch to insert @dircategory and @direntry statements to files that don't have them. This is part of my patch: --- ./man/vip.texi.org Fri Jun 16 15:31:11 1995 +++ ./man/vip.texi Tue May 20 01:28:33 1997 @@ -2,6 +2,10 @@ @setfilename ../info/vip @settitle VIP +@dircategory The Emacs editor and associated tools +@direntry +* VIP: (vip). A VI-emulation for Emacs. +@end direntry @iftex @finalout : The format should be self-explanatory. Many authors leave a dir file in the source tree that contains all the entries you need, so look around before you try to write your own. Also, make sure you look into related ports and make the section names and entry indentations consistent (we recommend that all entry text start at the 4th tab stop). Note that you can put only one info entry per file because of a bug in install-info --delete that deletes only the first entry if you specify multiple entries in the @direntry section. You can give the dir entries to install-info as arguments ( and ) instead of patching the texinfo sources. I do not think this is a good idea for ports because you need to duplicate the same information in three places (Makefile and @exec/@unexec of PLIST; see below). However, if you have a Japanese (or other multibyte encoding) info files, you will have to use the extra arguments to install-info because makeinfo can't handle those texinfo sources. (See Makefile and PLIST of japanese/skk for examples on how to do this). Go back to the port directory and do a make clean; make and verify that the info files are regenerated from the texinfo sources. Since the texinfo sources are newer than the info files, they should be rebuilt when you type make; but many Makefiles don't include correct dependencies for info files. In emacs' case, I had to patch the main Makefile.in so it will descend into the man subdirectory to rebuild the info pages. --- ./Makefile.in.org Mon Aug 19 21:12:19 1996 +++ ./Makefile.in Tue Apr 15 00:15:28 1997 @@ -184,7 +184,7 @@ # Subdirectories to make recursively. `lisp' is not included # because the compiled lisp files are part of the distribution # and you cannot remake them without installing Emacs first. -SUBDIR = lib-src src +SUBDIR = lib-src src man # The makefiles of the directories in $SUBDIR. SUBDIR_MAKEFILES = lib-src/Makefile man/Makefile src/Makefile oldXMenu/Makefile lwlib/Makefile --- ./man/Makefile.in.org Thu Jun 27 15:27:19 1996 +++ ./man/Makefile.in Tue Apr 15 00:29:52 1997 @@ -66,6 +66,7 @@ ${srcdir}/gnu1.texi \ ${srcdir}/glossary.texi +all: info info: $(INFO_TARGETS) dvi: $(DVI_TARGETS) The second hunk was necessary because the default target in the man subdir is called info, while the main Makefile wants to call all. I also deleted the installation of the info info file because we already have one with the same name in /usr/share/info (that patch is not shown here). If there is a place in the Makefile that is installing the dir file, delete it. Your port may not be doing it. Also, remove any commands that are otherwise mucking around with the dir file. --- ./Makefile.in.org Mon Aug 19 21:12:19 1996 +++ ./Makefile.in Mon Apr 14 23:38:07 1997 @@ -368,14 +368,8 @@ if [ `(cd ${srcdir}/info && /bin/pwd)` != `(cd ${infodir} && /bin/pwd)` ]; \ then \ (cd ${infodir}; \ - if [ -f dir ]; then \ - if [ ! -f dir.old ]; then mv -f dir dir.old; \ - else mv -f dir dir.bak; fi; \ - fi; \ cd ${srcdir}/info ; \ - (cd $${thisdir}; ${INSTALL_DATA} ${srcdir}/info/dir ${infodir}/dir); \ - (cd $${thisdir}; chmod a+r ${infodir}/dir); \ for f in ccmode* cl* dired-x* ediff* emacs* forms* gnus* info* message* mh-e* sc* vip*; do \ (cd $${thisdir}; \ ${INSTALL_DATA} ${srcdir}/info/$$f ${infodir}/$$f; \ chmod a+r ${infodir}/$$f); \ (This step is only necessary if you are modifying an existing port.) Take a look at pkg/PLIST and delete anything that is trying to patch up info/dir. They may be in pkg/INSTALL or some other file, so search extensively. Index: pkg/PLIST =================================================================== RCS file: /usr/cvs/ports/editors/emacs/pkg/PLIST,v retrieving revision 1.15 diff -u -r1.15 PLIST --- PLIST 1997/03/04 08:04:00 1.15 +++ PLIST 1997/04/15 06:32:12 @@ -15,9 +15,6 @@ man/man1/emacs.1.gz man/man1/etags.1.gz man/man1/ctags.1.gz -@unexec cp %D/info/dir %D/info/dir.bak -info/dir -@unexec cp %D/info/dir.bak %D/info/dir info/cl info/cl-1 info/cl-2 Add a post-install target to the Makefile to create a dir file if it is not there. Also, call install-info with the installed info files. Index: Makefile =================================================================== RCS file: /usr/cvs/ports/editors/emacs/Makefile,v retrieving revision 1.26 diff -u -r1.26 Makefile --- Makefile 1996/11/19 13:14:40 1.26 +++ Makefile 1997/05/20 10:25:09 1.28 @@ -20,5 +20,11 @@ post-install: .for file in emacs-19.34 emacsclient etags ctags b2m strip ${PREFIX}/bin/${file} .endfor + if [ ! -f ${PREFIX}/info/dir ]; then \ + ${SED} -ne '1,/Menu:/p' /usr/share/info/dir > ${PREFIX}/info/dir; \ + fi +.for info in emacs vip viper forms gnus mh-e cl sc dired-x ediff ccmode + install-info ${PREFIX}/info/${info} ${PREFIX}/info/dir +.endfor .include <bsd.port.mk> Do not use anything other than /usr/share/info/dir and the above command to create a new info file. In fact, I'd add the first three lines of the above patch to bsd.port.mk if you (the porter) wouldn't have to do it in PLIST by yourself anyway. Edit PLIST and add equivalent @exec statements and also @unexec for pkg_delete. You do not need to delete info/dir with @unexec. Index: pkg/PLIST =================================================================== RCS file: /usr/cvs/ports/editors/emacs/pkg/PLIST,v retrieving revision 1.15 diff -u -r1.15 PLIST --- PLIST 1997/03/04 08:04:00 1.15 +++ PLIST 1997/05/20 10:25:12 1.17 @@ -16,7 +14,15 @@ man/man1/etags.1.gz man/man1/ctags.1.gz +@unexec install-info --delete %D/info/emacs %D/info/dir : +@unexec install-info --delete %D/info/ccmode %D/info/dir info/cl info/cl-1 @@ -87,6 +94,18 @@ info/viper-3 info/viper-4 +@exec [ -f %D/info/dir ] || sed -ne '1,/Menu:/p' /usr/share/info/dir > %D/info/dir +@exec install-info %D/info/emacs %D/info/dir : +@exec install-info %D/info/ccmode %D/info/dir libexec/emacs/19.34/i386--freebsd/cvtmail libexec/emacs/19.34/i386--freebsd/digest-doc The @unexec install-info --delete commands have to be listed before the info files themselves so they can read the files. Also, the @exec install-info commands have to be after the info files and the @exec command that creates the the dir file. Test and admire your work. :) The sequence I recommend is: make package, pkg_delete, then pkg_add. Check the dir file before and after each step. Licensing Problems Some software packages have restrictive licenses or can be in violation to the law (PKP's patent on public key crypto, ITAR (export of crypto software) to name just two of them). What we can do with them vary a lot, depending on the exact wordings of the respective licenses. It is your responsibility as a porter to read the licensing terms of the software and make sure that the FreeBSD project will not be held accountable of violating them by redistributing the source or compiled binaries either via ftp or CD-ROM. If in doubt, please contact the &a.ports;. There are two variables you can set in the Makefile to handle the situations that arise frequently: If the port has a do not sell for profit type of license, set the variable NO_CDROM. We will make sure such ports won't go into the CD-ROM come release time. The distfile and package will still be available via ftp. If the resulting package needs to be built uniquely for each site, or the resulting binary package can't be distributed due to licensing; set the variable NO_PACKAGE. We will make sure such packages won't go on the ftp site, nor into the CD-ROM come release time. The distfile will still be included on both however. If the port has legal restrictions on who can use it (e.g., crypto stuff) or has a no commercial use license, set the variable RESTRICTED to be the string describing the reason why. For such ports, the distfiles/packages will not be available even from our ftp sites. The GNU General Public License (GPL), both version 1 and 2, should not be a problem for ports. If you are a committer, make sure you update the ports/LEGAL file too. Upgrading When you notice that a port is out of date compared to the latest version from the original authors, first make sure you have the latest port. You can find them in the ports-current directory of the ftp mirror sites. The next step is to send a mail to the maintainer, if one is listed in the port's Makefile. That person may already be working on an upgrade, or have a reason to not upgrade the port right now (because of, for example, stability problems of the new version). If the maintainer asks you to do the upgrade or there isn't any such person to begin with, please make the upgrade and send the recursive diff (either unified or context diff is fine, but port committers appear to prefer unified diff more) of the new and old ports directories to us (i.e., if your modified ports directory is called superedit and the original as in our tree is superedit.bak, then send us the result of diff -ruN superedit.bak superedit). Please examine the output to make sure all the changes make sense. The best way to send us the diff is by including it to send-pr1 (category ports). Please mention any added or deleted files in the message, as they have to be explicitly specified to CVS when doing a commit. If the diff is more than about 20KB, please compress and uuencode it; otherwise, just include it in as is in the PR. Do's and Dont's Here is a list of common do's and dont's that you encounter during the porting process. <makevar>WRKDIR</makevar> Do not leave anything valuable lying around in the work subdirectory, make clean will nuke it completely! If you need auxiliary files that are not scripts or patches, put them in the ${FILESDIR} subdirectory (files by default) and use the post-extract target to copy them to the work subdirectory. Package information Do include package information, i.e. COMMENT, DESCR, and PLIST, in pkg. Note that these files are not used only for packaging anymore, and are mandatory now, even if ${NO_PACKAGE} is set. Compress manpages, strip binaries Do compress manpages and strip binaries. If the original source already strips the binary, fine; otherwise, you can add a post-install rule to do it yourself. Here is an example: post-install: strip ${PREFIX}/bin/xdl Use the file command on the installed executable to check whether the binary is stripped or not. If it does not say `not stripped', it is stripped. To automagically compress the manpages, use the MAN[1-9LN] variables. They will check the variable NOMANCOMPRESS that the user can set in /etc/make.conf to disable man page compression. Place them last in the section below the MAINTAINER variable. Here is an example: MAN1= foo.1 bar.1 MAN5= foo.conf.5 MAN8= baz.8 This is not usually necessary with ports that are X applications and use Imake to build. If your port anchors its man tree somewhere other than PREFIX, you can use the MANPREFIX to set it. Also, if only manpages in certain section go in a non-standard place, such as many Perl modules ports, you can set individual man paths using MANsectPREFIX (where sect is one of 1-9, L or N). <makevar>INSTALL_*</makevar> macros Do use the macros provided in bsd.port.mk to ensure correct modes and ownership of files in your own *-install targets. They are: ${INSTALL_PROGRAM} is a command to install binary executables. ${INSTALL_SCRIPT} is a command to install executable scripts. ${INSTALL_DATA} is a command to install sharable data. ${INSTALL_MAN} is a command to install manpages and other documentation (it doesn't compress anything). These are basically the install command with all the appropriate flags. See below for an example on how to use them. <filename>INSTALL</filename> package script If your port needs execute commands when the binary package is installed with pkg_add you can do with via the pkg/INSTALL script. This script will automatically be added to the package, and will be run twice by pkg_add. The first time will as INSTALL ${PKGNAME} PRE-INSTALL and the second time as INSTALL ${PKGNAME} POST-INSTALL. $2 can be tested to determine which mode the script is being run in. The PKG_PREFIX environmental variable will be set to the package installation directory. See man pkg_add1 for additional information. This script is not run automatically if you install the port with make install. If you are depending on it being run, you will have to explicitly call it on your port's Makefile. <filename>REQ</filename> package script If your port needs to determine if it should install or not, you can create a pkg/REQ requirements script. It will be invoked automatically at installation/deinstallation time to determine whether or not installation/deinstallation should proceed. See man pkg_create1 and man pkg_add1 for more information. Install additional documentation If your software has some documentation other than the standard man and info pages that you think is useful for the user, install it under ${PREFIX}/share/doc. This can be done, like the previous item, in the post-install target. Create a new directory for your port. The directory name should reflect what the port is. This usually means ${PKGNAME} minus the version part. However, if you think the user might want different versions of the port to be installed at the same time, you can use the whole ${PKGNAME}. Make the installation dependent to the variable NOPORTDOCS so that users can disable it in /etc/make.conf, like this: post-install: .if !defined(NOPORTDOCS) ${MKDIR}${PREFIX}/share/doc/xv ${INSTALL_MAN} ${WRKSRC}/docs/xvdocs.ps ${PREFIX}/share/doc/xv .endif Do not forget to add them to pkg/PLIST too! (Do not worry about NOPORTDOCS here; there is currently no way for the packages to read variables from /etc/make.conf.) If you need to display a message to the installer, you may place the message in pkg/MESSAGE. This capibility is often useful to display additional installation steps to be taken after a pkg_add, or to display licensing information. MESSAGE does not need to be added to pkg/PLIST). <makevar>DIST_SUBDIR</makevar> Do not let your port clutter /usr/ports/distfiles. If your port requires a lot of files to be fetched, or contains a file that has a name that might conflict with other ports (e.g., Makefile), set ${DIST_SUBDIR} to the name of the port (${PKGNAME} without the version part should work fine). This will change ${DISTDIR} from the default /usr/ports/distfiles to /usr/ports/distfiles/${DIST_SUBDIR}, and in effect puts everything that is required for your port into that subdirectory. It will also look at the subdirectory with the same name on the backup master site at ftp.freebsd.org. (Setting ${DISTDIR} explicitly in your Makefile will not accomplish this, so please use ${DIST_SUBDIR}.) This does not affect the ${MASTER_SITES} you define in your Makefile. Feedback Do send applicable changes/patches to the original author/maintainer for inclusion in next release of the code. This will only make your job that much easier for the next release. RCS strings Do not put RCS strings in patches. CVS will mangle them when we put the files into the ports tree, and when we check them out again, they will come out different and the patch will fail. RCS strings are surrounded by dollar ($) signs, and typically start with $Id or $RCS. Recursive diff Using the recurse () option to diff to generate patches is fine, but please take a look at the resulting patches to make sure you don't have any unnecessary junk in there. In particular, diffs between two backup files, Makefiles when the port uses Imake or GNU configure, etc., are unnecessary and should be deleted. Also, if you had to delete a file, then you can do it in the post-extract target rather than as part of the patch. Once you are happy with the resuling diff, please split it up into one source file per patch file. <makevar>PREFIX</makevar> Do try to make your port install relative to ${PREFIX}. (The value of this variable will be set to ${LOCALBASE} (default /usr/local), unless ${USE_IMAKE} or ${USE_X11} is set, in which case it will be ${X11BASE} (default /usr/X11R6).) Not hard-coding /usr/local or /usr/X11R6 anywhere in the source will make the port much more flexible and able to cater to the needs of other sites. For X ports that use imake, this is automatic; otherwise, this can often be done by simply replacing the occurrences of /usr/local (or /usr/X11R6 for X ports that do not use imake) in the various scripts/Makefiles in the port to read ${PREFIX}, as this variable is automatically passed down to every stage of the build and install processes. The variable ${PREFIX} can be reassigned in your Makefile or in the user's environment. However, it is strongly discouraged for individual ports to set this variable explicitly in the Makefiles. (If your port is an X port but does not use imake, set USE_X11=yes; this is quite different from setting PREFIX=/usr/X11R6.) Also, refer to programs/files from other ports with the variables mentioned above, not explicit pathnames. For instance, if your port requires a macro PAGER to be the full pathname of less, use the compiler flag: -DPAGER=\"${PREFIX}/bin/less\" or -DPAGER=\"${LOCALBASE}/bin/less\" if this is an X port, instead of -DPAGER=\"/usr/local/bin/less\". This way it will have a better chance of working if the system administrator has moved the whole `/usr/local' tree somewhere else. Subdirectories Try to let the port put things in the right subdirectories of ${PREFIX}. Some ports lump everything and put it in the subdirectory with the port's name, which is incorrect. Also, many ports put everything except binaries, header files and manual pages in the a subdirectory of lib, which does not bode well with the BSD paradigm. Many of the files should be moved to one of the following: etc (setup/configuration files), libexec (executables started internally), sbin (executables for superusers/managers), info (documentation for info browser) or share (architecture independent files). See man hier7 for details, the rule governing /usr pretty much applies to /usr/local too. The exception are ports dealing with USENET news. They may use ${PREFIX}/news as a destination for their files. ldconfig If your port installs a shared library, add a post-install target to your Makefile that runs /sbin/ldconfig -m on the directory where the new library is installed (usually ${PREFIX}/lib) to register it into the shared library cache. Also, add an @exec line to your pkg/PLIST file so that a user who installed the package can start using the shared library immediately. This line should immediately follow the line for the shared library itself, as in: lib/libtcl80.so.1.0 @exec /sbin/ldconfig -m %D/lib Never, ever, ever add a line that says ldconfig without any arguments to your Makefile or pkg/PLIST. This will reset the shared library cache to the contents of /usr/lib only, and will royally screw up the user's machine (Help, xinit does not run anymore after I install this port!). Anybody who does this will be shot and cut into 65,536 pieces by a rusty knife and have his liver chopped out by a bunch of crows and will eternally rot to death in the deepest bowels of hell (not necessarily in that order).... UIDs If your port requires a certain user ID to be on the installed system, let the pkg/INSTALL script call pw to create it automatically. Look at japanese/Wnn or net/cvsup-mirror for examples. It is customary to use UIDs in the upper 2-digit range (i.e., from around 50 to 99) for this purpose. Make sure you don't use a UID already used by the system or other ports. This is the current list of UIDs between 50 and 99. majordom:*:54:54:Majordomo Pseudo User:/usr/local/majordomo:/nonexistent cyrus:*:60:60:the cyrus mail server:/nonexistent:/nonexistent gnats:*:61:1:GNATS database owner:/usr/local/share/gnats/gnats-db:/bin/sh uucp:*:66:66:UUCP pseudo-user:/var/spool/uucppublic:/usr/libexec/uucp/uucico xten:*:67:67:X-10 daemon:/usr/local/xten:/nonexistent pop:*:68:6:Post Office Owner (popper):/nonexistent:/nonexistent wnn:*:69:7:Wnn:/nonexistent:/nonexistent ifmail:*:70:66:Ifmail user:/nonexistent:/nonexistent pgsql:*:70:70:PostgreSQL pseudo-user:/usr/local/pgsql:/bin/sh ircd:*:72:72:IRCd hybrid:/nonexistent:/nonexistent alias:*:81:81:QMail user:/var/qmail/alias:/nonexistent qmaill:*:83:81:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent qmaild:*:82:81:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent qmailq:*:85:82:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent qmails:*:87:82:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent qmailp:*:84:81:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent qmailr:*:86:82:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent msql:*:87:87:mSQL-2 pseudo-user:/var/db/msqldb:/bin/sh Please send a notice to &a.ports; if you submit or commit a port that allocates a new UID in this range so we can keep this list up to date. If you are stuck.... Do look at existing examples and the bsd.port.mk file before asking us questions! ;) Do ask us questions if you have any trouble! Do not just beat your head against a wall! :) A Sample <filename>Makefile</filename> Here is a sample Makefile that you can use to create a new port. Make sure you remove all the extra comments (ones between brackets)! It is recommended that you follow this format (ordering of variables, empty lines between sections, etc.). Not all of the existing Makefiles are in this format (mostly old ones), but we are trying to uniformize how they look. This format is designed so that the most important information is easy to locate. [the header...just to make it easier for us to identify the ports.] # New ports collection makefile for: xdvi [the version required header should updated when upgrading a port.] # Version required: pl18 [things like "1.5alpha" are fine here too] [this is the date when the first version of this Makefile was created. Never change this when doing an update of the port.] # Date created: 26 May 1995 [this is the person who did the original port to FreeBSD, in particular, the person who wrote the first version of this Makefile. Remember, this should not be changed when upgrading the port later.] # Whom: Satoshi Asami &lgt;asami@FreeBSD.ORG> # # $Id$ [ ^^^^ This will be automatically replaced with RCS ID string by CVS when it is committed to our repository.] # [section to describe the port itself and the master site - DISTNAME is always first, followed by PKGNAME (if necessary), CATEGORIES, and then MASTER_SITES, which can be followed by MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR. After those, one of EXTRACT_SUFX or DISTFILES can be specified too.] DISTNAME= xdvi PKGNAME= xdvi-pl18 CATEGORIES= print [do not forget the trailing slash ("/")! if you aren't using MASTER_SITE_* macros] MASTER_SITES= ${MASTER_SITE_XCONTRIB} MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR= applications [set this if the source is not in the standard ".tar.gz" form] EXTRACT_SUFX= .tar.Z [section for distributed patches -- can be empty] PATCH_SITES= ftp://ftp.sra.co.jp/pub/X11/japanese/ PATCHFILES= xdvi-18.patch1.gz xdvi-18.patch2.gz [maintainer; *mandatory*! This is the person (preferably with commit privileges) who a user can contact for questions and bug reports - this person should be the porter or someone who can forward questions to the original porter reasonably promptly. If you really do not want to have your address here, set it to "ports@FreeBSD.ORG".] MAINTAINER= asami@FreeBSD.ORG [dependencies -- can be empty] RUN_DEPENDS= gs:${PORTSDIR}/print/ghostscript LIB_DEPENDS= Xpm\\.4\\.:${PORTSDIR}/graphics/xpm [this section is for other standard bsd.port.mk variables that do not belong to any of the above] [If it asks questions during configure, build, install...] IS_INTERACTIVE= yes [If it extracts to a directory other than ${DISTNAME}...] WRKSRC= ${WRKDIR}/xdvi-new [If the distributed patches were not made relative to ${WRKSRC}, you may need to tweak this] PATCH_DIST_STRIP= -p1 [If it requires a "configure" script generated by GNU autoconf to be run] GNU_CONFIGURE= yes [If it requires GNU make, not /usr/bin/make, to build...] USE_GMAKE= yes [If it is an X application and requires "xmkmf -a" to be run...] USE_IMAKE= yes [et cetera.] [non-standard variables to be used in the rules below] MY_FAVORITE_RESPONSE= "yeah, right" [then the special rules, in the order they are called] pre-fetch: i go fetch something, yeah post-patch: i need to do something after patch, great pre-install: and then some more stuff before installing, wow [and then the epilogue] .include <bsd.port.mk> Package Names The following are the conventions you should follow in naming your packages. This is to have our package directory easy to scan, as there are already lots and lots of packages and users are going to turn away if they hurt their eyes! The package name should look like language-name-compiled.specifics-version.numbers. If your ${DISTNAME} doesn't look like that, set ${PKGNAME} to something in that format. FreeBSD strives to support the native language of its users. The language- part should be a two letter abbreviation of the natural language defined by ISO-639 if the port is specific to a certain language. Examples are ja for Japanese, ru for Russian, vi for Vietnamese, zh for Chinese, ko for Korean and de for German. The name part should be all lowercases, except for a really large package (with lots of programs in it). Things like XFree86 (yes there really is a package of it, check it out) and ImageMagick fall into this category. Otherwise, convert the name (or at least the first letter) to lowercase. If the software in question really is called that way, you can have numbers, hyphens and underscores in the name too (like kinput2). If the port can be built with different hardcoded defaults (usually specified as environment variables or on the make command line), the -compiled.specifics part should state the compiled-in defaults (the hyphen is optional). Examples are papersize and font units. The version string should be a period-separated list of integers and single lowercase alphabetics. The only exception is the string pl (meaning `patchlevel'), which can be used only when there are no major and minor version numbers in the software. Here are some (real) examples on how to convert a ${DISTNAME} into a suitable ${PKGNAME}: Distribution Name Package Name Reason mule-2.2.2. mule-2.2.2 No changes required XFree86-3.1.2 XFree86-3.1.2 No changes required EmiClock-1.0.2 emiclock-1.0.2 No uppercase names for single programs gmod1.4 gmod-1.4 Need a hyphen before version numbers xmris.4.0.2 xmris-4.0.2 Need a hyphen before version numbers rdist-1.3alpha rdist-1.3a No strings like alpha allowed es-0.9-beta1 es-0.9b1 No strings like beta allowed v3.3beta021.src tiff-3.3 What the heck was that anyway? tvtwm tvtwm-pl11 Version string always required piewm piewm-1.0 Version string always required xvgr-2.10pl1 xvgr-2.10.1 pl allowed only when no major/minor version numbers gawk-2.15.6 ja-gawk-2.15.6 Japanese language version psutils-1.13 psutils-letter-1.13 Papersize hardcoded at package build time pkfonts pkfonts300-1.0 Package for 300dpi fonts If there is absolutely no trace of version information in the original source and it is unlikely that the original author will ever release another version, just set the version string to 1.0 (like the piewm example above). Otherwise, ask the original author or use the date string (yy.mm.dd) as the version. That is It, Folks! Boy, this sure was a long tutorial, wasn't it? Thanks for following us to here, really. Well, now that you know how to do a port, let us go at it and convert everything in the world into ports! That is the easiest way to start contributing to the FreeBSD Project! :) Money, Hardware or Internet access We are always very happy to accept donations to further the cause of the FreeBSD Project and, in a volunteer effort like ours, a little can go a long way! Donations of hardware are also very important to expanding our list of supported peripherals since we generally lack the funds to buy such items ourselves. Donating funds While the FreeBSD Project is not a 501(C3) (non-profit) corporation and hence cannot offer special tax incentives for any donations made, any such donations will be gratefully accepted on behalf of the project by FreeBSD, Inc. FreeBSD, Inc. was founded in early 1995 by &a.jkh; and &a.davidg; with the goal of furthering the aims of the FreeBSD Project and giving it a minimal corporate presence. Any and all funds donated (as well as any profits that may eventually be realized by FreeBSD, Inc.) will be used exclusively to further the project's goals. Please make any checks payable to FreeBSD, Inc., sent in care of the following address:
FreeBSD, Inc. c/o Jordan Hubbard 4041 Pike Lane, Suite F Concord CA, 94520
Wire transfers may also be sent directly to:
Bank Of America Concord Main Office P.O. Box 37176 San Francisco CA, 94137-5176 Routing #: 121-000-358 Account #: 01411-07441 (FreeBSD, Inc.)
Any correspondence related to donations should be sent to Jordan Hubbard jkh@FreeBSD.org, either via email or to the FreeBSD, Inc. postal address given above. If you do not wish to be listed in our section, please specify this when making your donation. Thanks! Donating hardware Donations of hardware in any of the 3 following categories are also gladly accepted by the FreeBSD Project: General purpose hardware such as disk drives, memory or complete systems should be sent to the FreeBSD, Inc. address listed in the donating funds section. Hardware for which ongoing compliance testing is desired. We are currently trying to put together a testing lab of all components that FreeBSD supports so that proper regression testing can be done with each new release. We are still lacking many important pieces (network cards, motherboards, etc) and if you would like to make such a donation, please contact &a.davidg; for information on which items are still required. Hardware currently unsupported by FreeBSD for which you would like to see such support added. Please contact the &a.core; before sending such items as we will need to find a developer willing to take on the task before we can accept delivery of new hardware. Donating Internet access We can always use new mirror sites for FTP, WWW or cvsup. If you would like to be such a mirror, please contact the FreeBSD project administrators admin@FreeBSD.ORG for more information. Donors Gallery The FreeBSD Project is indebted to the following donors and would like to publically thank them here! Contributors to the central server project: The following individuals and businesses made it possible for the FreeBSD Project to build a new central server machine to eventually replace freefall.freebsd.org by donating the following items: Ade Barkah mbarkah@freebsd.org and his employer, Hemisphere Online, donated a Pentium Pro (P6) 200Mhz CPU ASA Computers donated a Tyan 1662 motherboard. Joe McGuckin joe@via.net of ViaNet Communications donated a Kingston ethernet controller. Jack O'Neill jack@diamond.xtalwind.net donated an NCR 53C875 SCSI controller card. Ulf Zimmermann ulf@Alameda.net of Alameda Networks donated 128MB of memory, a 4 Gb disk drive and the case. Direct funding: The following individuals and businesses have generously contributed direct funding to the project: Annelise Anderson ANDRSN@HOOVER.STANFORD.EDU Matt Dillon dillon@best.net Epilogue Technology Corporation Sean Eric Fagan Gianmarco Giovannelli gmarco@masternet.it Josef C. Grosch joeg@truenorth.org Chuck Robey chuckr@freebsd.org Kenneth P. Stox ken@stox.sa.enteract.com of Imaginary Landscape, LLC. Dmitry S. Kohmanyuk dk@dog.farm.org Laser5 of Japan (a portion of the profits from sales of their various FreeBSD CD-ROMs. Fuki Shuppan Publishing Co. donated a portion of their profits from Hajimete no FreeBSD (FreeBSD, Getting started) to the FreeBSD and XFree86 projects. ASCII Corp. donated a portion of their profits from several FreeBSD-related books to the FreeBSD project. Yokogawa Electric Corp has generously donated significant funding to the FreeBSD project. BuffNET Hardware contributors: The following individuals and businesses have generously contributed hardware for testing and device driver development/support: Walnut Creek CDROM for providing the Pentium P5-90 and 486/DX2-66 EISA/VL systems that are being used for our development work, to say nothing of the network access and other donations of hardware resources. TRW Financial Systems, Inc. provided 130 PCs, three 68 GB fileservers, twelve Ethernets, two routers and an ATM switch for debugging the diskless code. They also keep a couple of FreeBSD hackers alive and busy. Thanks! Dermot McDonnell donated the Toshiba XM3401B CDROM drive currently used in freefall. &a.chuck; contributed his floppy tape streamer for experimental work. Larry Altneu larry@ALR.COM, and &a.wilko;, provided Wangtek and Archive QIC-02 tape drives in order to improve the wt driver. Ernst Winter ewinter@lobo.muc.de contributed a 2.88 MB floppy drive to the project. This will hopefully increase the pressure for rewriting the floppy disk driver. ;-) Tekram Technologies sent one each of their DC-390, DC-390U and DC-390F FAST and ULTRA SCSI host adapter cards for regression testing of the NCR and AMD drivers with their cards. They are also to be applauded for making driver sources for free operating systems available from their FTP server ftp://ftp.tekram.com/scsi/FreeBSD. Larry M. Augustin contributed not only a Symbios Sym8751S SCSI card, but also a set of data books, including one about the forthcoming Sym53c895 chip with Ultra-2 and LVD support, and the latest programming manual with information on how to safely use the advanced features of the latest Symbios SCSI chips. Thanks a lot! Christoph Kukulies kuku@freebsd.org donated an FX120 12 speed Mitsumi CDROM drive for IDE CDROM driver development. Special contributors: Walnut Creek CDROM has donated almost more than we can say (see the document for more details). In particular, we would like to thank them for the original hardware used for freefall.FreeBSD.ORG, our primary development machine, and for thud.FreeBSD.ORG, a testing and build box. We are also indebted to them for funding various contributors over the years and providing us with unrestricted use of their T1 connection to the Internet. The interface business GmbH, Dresden has been patiently supporting &a.joerg; who has often preferred FreeBSD work over paywork, and used to fall back to their (quite expensive) EUnet Internet connection whenever his private connection became too slow or flakey to work with it... Berkeley Software Design, Inc. has contributed their DOS emulator code to the remaining BSD world, which is used in the dosemu command. Derived Software Contributors This software was originally derived from William F. Jolitz's 386BSD release 0.1, though almost none of the original 386BSD specific code remains. This software has been essentially re-implemented from the 4.4BSD-Lite release provided by the Computer Science Research Group (CSRG) at the University of California, Berkeley and associated academic contributors. There are also portions of NetBSD that have been integrated into FreeBSD as well, and we would therefore like to thank all the contributors to NetBSD for their work. Additional FreeBSD Contributors (in alphabetical order by first name): A JOSEPH KOSHY koshy@india.hp.com ABURAYA Ryushirou rewsirow@ff.iij4u.or.jp Ada T Lim ada@bsd.org Adam Glass glass@postgres.berkeley.edu Adrian T. Filipi-Martin atf3r@agate.cs.virginia.edu Akito Fujita fujita@zoo.ncl.omron.co.jp Alain Kalker A.C.P.M.Kalker@student.utwente.nl Alan Cox alc@cs.rice.edu Andreas Kohout shanee@rabbit.augusta.de Andreas Lohr andreas@marvin.RoBIN.de Andrew Gordon andrew.gordon@net-tel.co.uk Andrew Herbert andrew@werple.apana.org.au Andrew McRae amcrae@cisco.com Andrew Moore alm@FreeBSD.org Andrew Stevenson andrew@ugh.net.au Andrew V. Stesin stesin@elvisti.kiev.ua Andrey Zakhvatov andy@icc.surw.chel.su Andy Whitcroft andy@sarc.city.ac.uk Angelo Turetta ATuretta@stylo.it Anthony Yee-Hang Chan yeehang@netcom.com Ari Suutari ari@suutari.iki.fi Brent J. Nordquist bjn@visi.com Bernd Rosauer br@schiele-ct.de Bill Kish kish@osf.org &a.wlloyd; Bob Wilcox bob@obiwan.uucp Boyd Faulkner faulkner@mpd.tandem.com Brent J. Nordquist bjn@visi.com Brett Taylor brett@peloton.physics.montana.edu Brian Clapper bmc@willscreek.com Brian Handy handy@lambic.space.lockheed.com Brian Tao taob@risc.org Brion Moss brion@queeg.com Bruce Gingery bgingery@gtcs.com Carey Jones mcj@acquiesce.org Carl Fongheiser cmf@netins.net Charles Hannum mycroft@ai.mit.edu Charles Mott cmott@srv.net Chet Ramey chet@odin.INS.CWRU.Edu Chris Dabrowski chris@vader.org Chris G. Demetriou cgd@postgres.berkeley.edu Chris Shenton cshenton@angst.it.hq.nasa.gov Chris Stenton jacs@gnome.co.uk Chris Timmons skynyrd@opus.cts.cwu.edu Chris Torek torek@ee.lbl.gov Christian Gusenbauer cg@fimp01.fim.uni-linz.ac.at Christian Haury Christian.Haury@sagem.fr Christoph Robitschko chmr@edvz.tu-graz.ac.at Choi Jun Ho junker@jazz.snu.ac.kr Chuck Hein chein@cisco.com Conrad Sabatier conrads@neosoft.com Cornelis van der Laan nils@guru.ims.uni-stuttgart.de Craig Struble cstruble@vt.edu Cristian Ferretti cfs@riemann.mat.puc.cl Curt Mayer curt@toad.com Dai Ishijima ishijima@tri.pref.osaka.jp Dan Cross tenser@spitfire.ecsel.psu.edu Daniel Baker dbaker@crash.ops.neosoft.com Daniel M. Eischen deischen@iworks.InterWorks.org Daniel O'Connor doconnor@gsoft.com.au Danny J. Zerkel dzerkel@feephi.phofarm.com Dave Bodenstab imdave@synet.net Dave Burgess burgess@hrd769.brooks.af.mil Dave Chapeskie dchapes@zeus.leitch.com Dave Edmondson davided@sco.com Dave Rivers rivers@ponds.uucp David A. Bader dbader@umiacs.umd.edu David Dawes dawes@physics.su.OZ.AU David Holloway daveh@gwythaint.tamis.com David Leonard d@scry.dstc.edu.au Dean Huxley dean@fsa.ca Dirk Froemberg dirk@hal.in-berlin.de Dmitrij Tejblum dima@tejblum.dnttm.rssi.ru Dmitry Kohmanyuk dk@farm.org &a.whiteside; Don Yuniskis dgy@rtd.com Donald Burr d_burr@ix.netcom.com Doug Ambrisko ambrisko@ambrisko.roble.com Douglas Carmichael dcarmich@mcs.com Eiji-usagi-MATSUmoto usagi@ruby.club.or.jp ELISA Font Project Eric A. Griff eagriff@global2000.net Eric Blood eblood@cs.unr.edu Eric J. Chet ejc@bazzle.com Eric J. Schwertfeger eric@cybernut.com Francis M J Hsieh mjhsieh@life.nthu.edu.tw Frank Bartels knarf@camelot.de Frank Chen Hsiung Chan frankch@waru.life.nthu.edu.tw Frank Maclachlan fpm@crash.cts.com Frank Nobis fn@trinity.radio-do.de FUJIMOTO Kensaku fujimoto@oscar.elec.waseda.ac.jp FURUSAWA Kazuhisa furusawa@com.cs.osakafu-u.ac.jp Gary A. Browning gab10@griffcd.amdahl.com Gary Kline kline@thought.org Gerard Roudier groudier@club-internet.fr Greg Ungerer gerg@stallion.oz.au Harlan Stenn Harlan.Stenn@pfcs.com Havard Eidnes Havard.Eidnes@runit.sintef.no Hideaki Ohmon ohmon@tom.sfc.keio.ac.jp Hidekazu Kuroki hidekazu@cs.titech.ac.jp Hidetoshi Shimokawa simokawa@sat.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp Hideyuki Suzuki hideyuki@sat.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp Hironori Ikura hikura@kaisei.org Holger Veit Holger.Veit@gmd.de Hung-Chi Chu hcchu@r350.ee.ntu.edu.tw Ian Vaudrey i.vaudrey@bigfoot.com Igor Vinokurov igor@zynaps.ru Ikuo Nakagawa ikuo@isl.intec.co.jp IMAMURA Tomoaki tomoak-i@is.aist-nara.ac.jp Ishii Masahiro Issei Suzuki issei@t-cnet.or.jp Itsuro Saito saito@miv.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp J. David Lowe lowe@saturn5.com J.T. Conklin jtc@cygnus.com James Clark jjc@jclark.com James da Silva jds@cs.umd.edu et al Janusz Kokot janek@gaja.ipan.lublin.pl Jason Thorpe thorpej@nas.nasa.gov Javier Martin Rueda jmrueda@diatel.upm.es Jeff Bartig jeffb@doit.wisc.edu Jeffrey Wheat jeff@cetlink.net Jian-Da Li jdli@csie.NCTU.edu.tw Jim Binkley jrb@cs.pdx.edu Jim Lowe james@cs.uwm.edu Jim Wilson wilson@moria.cygnus.com Joao Carlos Mendes Luis jonny@coppe.ufrj.br Joel Sutton sutton@aardvark.apana.org.au Johann Tonsing jtonsing@mikom.csir.co.za John Capo jc@irbs.com John Heidemann johnh@isi.edu John Perry perry@vishnu.alias.net John Polstra jdp@polstra.com John Rochester jr@cs.mun.ca Josef Karthauser joe@uk.freebsd.org Joseph Stein joes@seaport.net Josh Gilliam josh@quick.net Josh Tiefenbach josh@ican.net Juergen Lock nox@jelal.hb.north.de Juha Inkari inkari@cc.hut.fi Julian Assange proff@suburbia.net Julian Jenkins kaveman@magna.com.au Julian Stacey jhs@freebsd.org Junichi Satoh junichi@jp.freebsd.org Kapil Chowksey kchowksey@hss.hns.com Kazuhiko Kiriyama kiri@kiri.toba-cmt.ac.jp Keith Bostic bostic@bostic.com Keith Moore Kenneth Monville desmo@bandwidth.org Kent Vander Velden graphix@iastate.edu Kirk McKusick mckusick@mckusick.com Kiroh HARADA kiroh@kh.rim.or.jp Koichi Sato copan@ppp.fastnet.or.jp Kostya Lukin lukin@okbmei.msk.su Kurt Olsen kurto@tiny.mcs.usu.edu Lars Koeller Lars.Koeller@Uni-Bielefeld.DE Lucas James Lucas.James@ldjpc.apana.org.au Luigi Rizzo luigi@iet.unipi.it Makoto MATSUSHITA matusita@jp.freebsd.org Manu Iyengar iyengar@grunthos.pscwa.psca.com Marc Frajola marc@dev.com Marc Ramirez mrami@mramirez.sy.yale.edu Marc Slemko marcs@znep.com Marc van Kempen wmbfmk@urc.tue.nl Mario Sergio Fujikawa Ferreira lioux@gns.com.br Mark Huizer xaa@stack.nl Mark J. Taylor mtaylor@cybernet.com Mark Krentel krentel@rice.edu Mark Tinguely tinguely@plains.nodak.edu tinguely@hookie.cs.ndsu.NoDak.edu Martin Birgmeier Martti Kuparinen erakupa@kk.etx.ericsson.se Masachika ISHIZUKA ishizuka@isis.min.ntt.jp Mats Lofkvist mal@algonet.se Matt Bartley mbartley@lear35.cytex.com Matt Thomas thomas@lkg.dec.com Matt White mwhite+@CMU.EDU Matthew Hunt mph@pobox.com Matthew N. Dodd winter@jurai.net Matthew Stein matt@bdd.net Maurice Castro maurice@planet.serc.rmit.edu.au Michael Butschky butsch@computi.erols.com Michael Elbel me@FreeBSD.ORG Michael Searle searle@longacre.demon.co.uk Miguel Angel Sagreras msagre@cactus.fi.uba.ar Mikael Hybsch micke@dynas.se Mikhail Teterin mi@aldan.ziplink.net Mike McGaughey mmcg@cs.monash.edu.au Mike Peck mike@binghamton.edu Ming-I Hseh PA@FreeBSD.ee.Ntu.edu.TW MITA Yoshio mita@jp.FreeBSD.ORG MOROHOSHI Akihiko moro@race.u-tokyo.ac.jp Murray Stokely murray@cdrom.com NAKAMURA Kazushi nkazushi@highway.or.jp Naoki Hamada nao@tom-yam.or.jp Narvi narvi@haldjas.folklore.ee NIIMI Satoshi sa2c@and.or.jp Nick Sayer nsayer@quack.kfu.com Nicolas Souchu Nicolas.Souchu@prism.uvsq.fr Nisha Talagala nisha@cs.berkeley.edu Nobuhiro Yasutomi nobu@psrc.isac.co.jp Nobuyuki Koganemaru kogane@kces.koganemaru.co.jp Noritaka Ishizumi graphite@jp.FreeBSD.ORG Oliver Fromme oliver.fromme@heim3.tu-clausthal.de Oliver Laumann net@informatik.uni-bremen.de Oliver Oberdorf oly@world.std.com Paul Fox pgf@foxharp.boston.ma.us Paul Kranenburg pk@cs.few.eur.nl Paul Mackerras paulus@cs.anu.edu.au Paulo Menezes paulo@isr.uc.pt Paul T. Root proot@horton.iaces.com Pedro Giffuni giffunip@asme.org Pedro A M Vazquez vazquez@IQM.Unicamp.BR Peter Cornelius pc@inr.fzk.de Peter Haight peterh@prognet.com Peter Hawkins peter@rhiannon.clari.net.au Peter Stubbs PETERS@staidan.qld.edu.au Pierre Beyssac bp@fasterix.freenix.org Phil Maker pjm@cs.ntu.edu.au R. Kym Horsell Randall Hopper rhh@stealth.ct.picker.com Richard Hwang rhwang@bigpanda.com Richard Seaman, Jr. dick@tar.com Richard Stallman rms@gnu.ai.mit.edu Richard Wiwatowski rjwiwat@adelaide.on.net Rob Mallory rmallory@csusb.edu Rob Shady rls@id.net Rob Snow rsnow@txdirect.net Robert Sanders rsanders@mindspring.com Robert Withrow witr@rwwa.com Ronald Kuehn kuehn@rz.tu-clausthal.de Roland Jesse jesse@cs.uni-magdeburg.de Ruslan Shevchenko rssh@cki.ipri.kiev.ua Samuel Lam skl@ScalableNetwork.com Sander Vesik sander@haldjas.folklore.ee Sandro Sigala ssigala@globalnet.it Sascha Blank blank@fox.uni-trier.de Sascha Wildner swildner@channelz.GUN.de Satoshi Taoka taoka@infonets.hiroshima-u.ac.jp Scott Blachowicz scott.blachowicz@seaslug.org Scott A. Kenney saken@rmta.ml.org Serge V. Vakulenko vak@zebub.msk.su Sheldon Hearn axl@iafrica.com Simon Marlow simonm@dcs.gla.ac.uk Slaven Rezic (Tomic) eserte@cs.tu-berlin.de Soren Dayton csdayton@midway.uchicago.edu Soren Dossing sauber@netcom.com Stefan Moeding moeding@bn.DeTeMobil.de Stephane Legrand stephane@lituus.fr Stephen J. Roznowski sjr@home.net Steve Gerakines steve2@genesis.tiac.net Suzuki Yoshiaki zensyo@ann.tama.kawasaki.jp Tadashi Kumano kumano@strl.nhk.or.jp Taguchi Takeshi taguchi@tohoku.iij.ad.jp Takayuki Ariga a00821@cc.hc.keio.ac.jp Terry Lambert terry@lambert.org Terry Lee terry@uivlsi.csl.uiuc.edu Tetsuya Furukawa tetsuya@secom-sis.co.jp Theo Deraadt deraadt@fsa.ca Thomas König Thomas.Koenig@ciw.uni-karlsruhe.de Þórður Ívarsson totii@est.is Tim Kientzle kientzle@netcom.com Tim Wilkinson tim@sarc.city.ac.uk Tom Samplonius tom@misery.sdf.com Torbjorn Granlund tege@matematik.su.se Toshihiro Kanda candy@fct.kgc.co.jp Trefor S. trefor@flevel.co.uk Ville Eerola ve@sci.fi Werner Griessl werner@btp1da.phy.uni-bayreuth.de Wes Santee wsantee@wsantee.oz.net Wilko Bulte wilko@yedi.iaf.nl Wolfgang Stanglmeier wolf@kintaro.cologne.de Wu Ching-hong woju@FreeBSD.ee.Ntu.edu.TW Yen-Shuo Su yssu@CCCA.NCTU.edu.tw Yoshiaki Uchikawa yoshiaki@kt.rim.or.jp Yoshiro Mihira sanpei@yy.cs.keio.ac.jp Yukihiro Nakai nakai@mlab.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp Yuval Yarom yval@cs.huji.ac.il Yves Fonk yves@cpcoup5.tn.tudelft.nl 386BSD Patch Kit Patch Contributors (in alphabetical order by first name): Adam Glass glass@postgres.berkeley.edu Adrian Hall adrian@ibmpcug.co.uk Andrey A. Chernov ache@astral.msk.su Andrew Herbert andrew@werple.apana.org.au Andrew Moore alm@netcom.com Andy Valencia ajv@csd.mot.com jtk@netcom.com Arne Henrik Juul arnej@Lise.Unit.NO Bakul Shah bvs@bitblocks.com Barry Lustig barry@ictv.com Bob Wilcox bob@obiwan.uucp Branko Lankester Brett Lymn blymn@mulga.awadi.com.AU Charles Hannum mycroft@ai.mit.edu Chris G. Demetriou cgd@postgres.berkeley.edu Chris Torek torek@ee.lbl.gov Christoph Robitschko chmr@edvz.tu-graz.ac.at Daniel Poirot poirot@aio.jsc.nasa.gov Dave Burgess burgess@hrd769.brooks.af.mil Dave Rivers rivers@ponds.uucp David Dawes dawes@physics.su.OZ.AU David Greenman davidg@Root.COM Eric J. Haug ejh@slustl.slu.edu Felix Gaehtgens felix@escape.vsse.in-berlin.de Frank Maclachlan fpm@crash.cts.com Gary A. Browning gab10@griffcd.amdahl.com Gary Howland gary@hotlava.com Geoff Rehmet csgr@alpha.ru.ac.za Goran Hammarback goran@astro.uu.se Guido van Rooij guido@gvr.win.tue.nl Guy Harris guy@auspex.com Havard Eidnes Havard.Eidnes@runit.sintef.no Herb Peyerl hpeyerl@novatel.cuc.ab.ca Holger Veit Holger.Veit@gmd.de Ishii Masahiro, R. Kym Horsell J.T. Conklin jtc@cygnus.com Jagane D Sundar jagane@netcom.com James Clark jjc@jclark.com James Jegers jimj@miller.cs.uwm.edu James W. Dolter James da Silva jds@cs.umd.edu et al Jay Fenlason hack@datacube.com Jim Wilson wilson@moria.cygnus.com Jörg Lohse lohse@tech7.informatik.uni-hamburg.de Jörg Wunsch joerg_wunsch@uriah.heep.sax.de John Dyson formerly dyson@ref.tfs.com John Woods jfw@eddie.mit.edu Jordan K. Hubbard jkh@whisker.hubbard.ie Julian Elischer julian@dialix.oz.au Julian Stacey jhs@freebsd.org Karl Lehenbauer karl@NeoSoft.com karl@one.neosoft.com Keith Bostic bostic@toe.CS.Berkeley.EDU Ken Hughes Kent Talarico kent@shipwreck.tsoft.net Kevin Lahey kml%rokkaku.UUCP@mathcs.emory.edu kml@mosquito.cis.ufl.edu Marc Frajola marc@dev.com Mark Tinguely tinguely@plains.nodak.edu tinguely@hookie.cs.ndsu.NoDak.edu Martin Renters martin@tdc.on.ca Michael Clay mclay@weareb.org Michael Galassi nerd@percival.rain.com Mike Durkin mdurkin@tsoft.sf-bay.org Naoki Hamada nao@tom-yam.or.jp Nate Williams nate@bsd.coe.montana.edu Nick Handel nhandel@NeoSoft.com nick@madhouse.neosoft.com Pace Willisson pace@blitz.com Paul Kranenburg pk@cs.few.eur.nl Paul Mackerras paulus@cs.anu.edu.au Paul Popelka paulp@uts.amdahl.com Peter da Silva peter@NeoSoft.com Phil Sutherland philsuth@mycroft.dialix.oz.au Poul-Henning Kampphk@FreeBSD.ORG Ralf Friedl friedl@informatik.uni-kl.de Rick Macklem root@snowhite.cis.uoguelph.ca Robert D. Thrush rd@phoenix.aii.com Rodney W. Grimes rgrimes@cdrom.com Sascha Wildner swildner@channelz.GUN.de Scott Burris scott@pita.cns.ucla.edu Scott Reynolds scott@clmqt.marquette.mi.us Sean Eric Fagan sef@kithrup.com Simon J Gerraty sjg@melb.bull.oz.au sjg@zen.void.oz.au Stephen McKay syssgm@devetir.qld.gov.au Terry Lambert terry@icarus.weber.edu Terry Lee terry@uivlsi.csl.uiuc.edu Tor Egge Tor.Egge@idi.ntnu.no Warren Toomey wkt@csadfa.cs.adfa.oz.au Wiljo Heinen wiljo@freeside.ki.open.de William Jolitz withheld Wolfgang Solfrank ws@tools.de Wolfgang Stanglmeier wolf@dentaro.GUN.de Yuval Yarom yval@cs.huji.ac.il Source Tree Guidelines and Policies Contributed by &a.phk;. This chapter documents various guidelines and policies in force for the FreeBSD source tree. <makevar>MAINTAINER</makevar> on Makefiles June 1996. If a particular portion of the FreeBSD distribution is being maintained by a person or group of persons, they can communicate this fact to the world by adding a MAINTAINER= email-addresses line to the Makefiles covering this portion of the source tree. The semantics of this are as follows: The maintainer owns and is responsible for that code. This means that he is responsible for fixing bugs and answer problem reports pertaining to that piece of the code, and in the case of contributed software, for tracking new versions, as appropriate. Changes to directories which have a maintainer defined shall be sent to the maintainer for review before being committed. Only if the maintainer does not respond for an unacceptable period of time, to several emails, will it be acceptable to commit changes without review by the maintainer. However, it is suggested that you try and have the changes reviewed by someone else if at all possible. It is of course not acceptable to add a person or group as maintainer unless they agree to assume this duty. On the other hand it doesn't have to be a committer and it can easily be a group of people. Contributed Software June 1996. Some parts of the FreeBSD distribution consist of software that is actively being maintained outside the FreeBSD project. For historical reasons, we call this contributed software. Some examples are perl, gcc and patch. Over the last couple of years, various methods have been used in dealing with this type of software and all have some number of advantages and drawbacks. No clear winner has emerged. Since this is the case, after some debate one of these methods has been selected as the official method and will be required for future imports of software of this kind. Furthermore, it is strongly suggested that existing contributed software converge on this model over time, as it has significant advantages over the old method, including the ability to easily obtain diffs relative to the official versions of the source by everyone (even without cvs access). This will make it significantly easier to return changes to the primary developers of the contributed software. Ultimately, however, it comes down to the people actually doing the work. If using this model is particularly unsuited to the package being dealt with, exceptions to these rules may be granted only with the approval of the core team and with the general consensus of the other developers. The ability to maintain the package in the future will be a key issue in the decisions. The Tcl embedded programming language will be used as example of how this model works: src/contrib/tcl contains the source as distributed by the maintainers of this package. Parts that are entirely not applicable for FreeBSD can be removed. In the case of Tcl, the mac, win and compat subdirectories were eliminated before the import src/lib/libtcl contains only a "bmake style" Makefile that uses the standard bsd.lib.mk makefile rules to produce the library and install the documentation. src/usr.bin/tclsh contains only a bmake style Makefile which will produce and install the tclsh program and its associated man-pages using the standard bsd.prog.mk rules. src/tools/tools/tcl_bmake contains a couple of shell-scripts that can be of help when the tcl software needs updating. These are not part of the built or installed software. The important thing here is that the src/contrib/tcl directory is created according to the rules: It is supposed to contain the sources as distributed (on a proper CVS vendor-branch) with as few FreeBSD-specific changes as possible. The 'easy-import' tool on freefall will assist in doing the import, but if there are any doubts on how to go about it, it is imperative that you ask first and not blunder ahead and hope it works out. CVS is not forgiving of import accidents and a fair amount of effort is required to back out major mistakes. Because of some unfortunate design limitations with CVS's vendor branches, it is required that official patches from the vendor be applied to the original distributed sources and the result re-imported onto the vendor branch again. Official patches should never be patched into the FreeBSD checked out version and "committed", as this destroys the vendor branch coherency and makes importing future versions rather difficult as there will be conflicts. Since many packages contain files that are meant for compatibility with other architectures and environments that FreeBSD, it is permissible to remove parts of the distribution tree that are of no interest to FreeBSD in order to save space. Files containing copyright notices and release-note kind of information applicable to the remaining files shall not be removed. If it seems easier, the bmake Makefiles can be produced from the dist tree automatically by some utility, something which would hopefully make it even easier to upgrade to a new version. If this is done, be sure to check in such utilities (as necessary) in the src/tools directory along with the port itself so that it is available to future maintainers. In the src/contrib/tcl level directory, a file called FREEBSD-upgrade should be added and it should states things like: Which files have been left out Where the original distribution was obtained from and/or the official master site. Where to send patches back to the original authors Perhaps an overview of the FreeBSD-specific changes that have been made. However, please do not import FREEBSD-upgrade with the contributed source. Rather you should cvs add FREEBSD-upgrade ; cvs ci after the initial import. Example wording from src/contrib/cpio is below: This directory contains virgin sources of the original distribution files on a "vendor" branch. Do not, under any circumstances, attempt to upgrade the files in this directory via patches and a cvs commit. New versions or official-patch versions must be imported. Please remember to import with "-ko" to prevent CVS from corrupting any vendor RCS Ids. For the import of GNU cpio 2.4.2, the following files were removed: INSTALL cpio.info mkdir.c Makefile.in cpio.texi mkinstalldirs To upgrade to a newer version of cpio, when it is available: 1. Unpack the new version into an empty directory. [Do not make ANY changes to the files.] 2. Remove the files listed above and any others that don't apply to FreeBSD. 3. Use the command: cvs import -ko -m 'Virgin import of GNU cpio v<version>' \ src/contrib/cpio GNU cpio_<version> For example, to do the import of version 2.4.2, I typed: cvs import -ko -m 'Virgin import of GNU v2.4.2' \ src/contrib/cpio GNU cpio_2_4_2 4. Follow the instructions printed out in step 3 to resolve any conflicts between local FreeBSD changes and the newer version. Do not, under any circumstances, deviate from this procedure. To make local changes to cpio, simply patch and commit to the main branch (aka HEAD). Never make local changes on the GNU branch. All local changes should be submitted to "cpio@gnu.ai.mit.edu" for inclusion in the next vendor release. obrien@freebsd.org - 30 March 1997 Shared Libraries Contributed by &a.asami;, &a.peter;, and &a.obrien;. 9 December 1996. If you are adding shared library support to a port or other piece of software that doesn't have one, the version numbers should follow these rules. Generally, the resulting numbers will have nothing to do with the release version of the software. The three principles of shared library building are: Start from 1.0 If there is a change that is backwards compatible, bump minor number If there is an incompatible change, bump major number For instance, added functions and bugfixes result in the minor version number being bumped, while deleted functions, changed function call syntax etc. will force the major version number to change. Stick to version numbers of the form major.minor (x.y). Our dynamic linker does not handle version numbers of the form x.y.z well. Any version number after the y (ie. the third digit) is totally ignored when comparing shared lib version numbers to decide which library to link with. Given two shared libraries that differ only in the micro revision, ld.so will link with the higher one. Ie: if you link with libfoo.so.3.3.3, the linker only records 3.3 in the headers, and will link with anything starting with libfoo.so.3.(anything >= 3).(highest available). ld.so will always use the highest minor revision. Ie: it will use libc.so.2.2 in preference to libc.so.2.0, even if the program was initially linked with libc.so.2.0. For non-port libraries, it is also our policy to change the shared library version number only once between releases. When you make a change to a system library that requires the version number to be bumped, check the Makefile's commit logs. It is the responsibility of the committer to ensure that the first such change since the release will result in the shared library version number in the Makefile to be updated, and any subsequent changes will not. Adding New Kernel Configuration Options Contributed by &a.joerg; You should be familiar with the section about before reading here. What's a <emphasis>Kernel Option</emphasis>, Anyway? The use of kernel options is basically described in the section. There's also an explanation of historic and new-style options. The ultimate goal is to eventually turn all the supported options in the kernel into new-style ones, so for people who correctly did a make depend in their kernel compile directory after running config8, the build process will automatically pick up modified options, and only recompile those files where it is necessary. Wiping out the old compile directory on each run of config8 as it is still done now can then be eliminated again. Basically, a kernel option is nothing else than the definition of a C preprocessor macro for the kernel compilation process. To make the build truly optional, the corresponding part of the kernel source (or kernel .h file) must be written with the option concept in mind, i.e. the default must have been made overridable by the config option. This is usually done with something like: #ifndef THIS_OPTION #define THIS_OPTION (some_default_value) #endif /* THIS_OPTION */ This way, an administrator mentioning another value for the option in his config file will take the default out of effect, and replace it with his new value. Clearly, the new value will be substituted into the source code during the preprocessor run, so it must be a valid C expression in whatever context the default value would have been used. It is also possible to create value-less options that simply enable or disable a particular piece of code by embracing it in #ifdef THAT_OPTION [your code here] #endif Simply mentioning THAT_OPTION in the config file (with or without any value) will then turn on the corresponding piece of code. People familiar with the C language will immediately recognize that everything could be counted as a config option where there is at least a single #ifdef referencing it... However, it's unlikely that many people would put options notyet,notdef in their config file, and then wonder why the kernel compilation falls over. :-) Clearly, using arbitrary names for the options makes it very hard to track their usage throughout the kernel source tree. That is the rationale behind the new-style option scheme, where each option goes into a separate .h file in the kernel compile directory, which is by convention named opt_foo.h. This way, the usual Makefile dependencies could be applied, and make can determine what needs to be recompiled once an option has been changed. The old-style option mechanism still has one advantage for local options or maybe experimental options that have a short anticipated lifetime: since it is easy to add a new #ifdef to the kernel source, this has already made it a kernel config option. In this case, the administrator using such an option is responsible himself for knowing about its implications (and maybe manually forcing the recompilation of parts of his kernel). Once the transition of all supported options has been done, config8 will warn whenever an unsupported option appears in the config file, but it will nevertheless include it into the kernel Makefile. Now What Do I Have to Do for it? First, edit sys/conf/options (or sys/i386/conf/options.<arch>, e. g. sys/i386/conf/options.i386), and select an opt_foo.h file where your new option would best go into. If there is already something that comes close to the purpose of the new option, pick this. For example, options modifying the overall behaviour of the SCSI subsystem can go into opt_scsi.h. By default, simply mentioning an option in the appropriate option file, say FOO, implies its value will go into the corresponding file opt_foo.h. This can be overridden on the right-hand side of a rule by specifying another filename. If there is no opt_foo.h already available for the intended new option, invent a new name. Make it meaningful, and comment the new section in the options[.<arch>] file. config8 will automagically pick up the change, and create that file next time it is run. Most options should go in a header file by themselves.. Packing too many options into a single opt_foo.h will cause too many kernel files to be rebuilt when one of the options has been changed in the config file. Finally, find out which kernel files depend on the new option. Unless you have just invented your option, and it does not exist anywhere yet, &prompt.user; find /usr/src/sys -name type f | xargs fgrep NEW_OPTION is your friend in finding them. Go and edit all those files, and add #include "opt_foo.h" on top, before all the #include <xxx.h> stuff. This sequence is most important as the options could override defaults from the regular include files, if the defaults are of the form #ifndef NEW_OPTION #define NEW_OPTION (something) #endif in the regular header. Adding an option that overrides something in a system header file (i.e., a file sitting in /usr/include/sys/) is almost always a mistake. opt_foo.h cannot be included into those files since it would break the headers more seriously, but if it is not included, then places that include it may get an inconsistent value for the option. Yes, there are precedents for this right now, but that does not make them more correct. Kernel Debugging Contributed by &a.paul; and &a.joerg; Debugging a Kernel Crash Dump with <command>kgdb</command> Here are some instructions for getting kernel debugging working on a crash dump. They assume that you have enough swap space for a crash dump. If you have multiple swap partitions and the first one is too small to hold the dump, you can configure your kernel to use an alternate dump device (in the config kernel line), or you can specify an alternate using the dumpon8 command. Dumps to non-swap devices, tapes for example, are currently not supported. Config your kernel using config -g. See for details on configuring the FreeBSD kernel. Use the dumpon8 command to tell the kernel where to dump to (note that this will have to be done after configuring the partition in question as swap space via swapon8). This is normally arranged via /etc/rc.conf and /etc/rc. Alternatively, you can hard-code the dump device via the dump clause in the config line of your kernel config file. This is deprecated and should be used only if you want a crash dump from a kernel that crashes during booting. In the following, the term kgdb refers to gdb run in kernel debug mode. This can be accomplished by either starting the gdb with the option , or by linking and starting it under the name kgdb. This is not being done by default, however, and the idea is basically deprecated since the GNU folks do not like their tools to behave differently when called by another name. This feature may well be discontinued in further releases. When the kernel has been built make a copy of it, say kernel.debug, and then run strip -d on the original. Install the original as normal. You may also install the unstripped kernel, but symbol table lookup time for some programs will drastically increase, and since the whole kernel is loaded entirely at boot time and cannot be swapped out later, several megabytes of physical memory will be wasted. If you are testing a new kernel, for example by typing the new kernel's name at the boot prompt, but need to boot a different one in order to get your system up and running again, boot it only into single user state using the flag at the boot prompt, and then perform the following steps: &prompt.root; fsck -p &prompt.root; mount -a -t ufs # so your file system for /var/crash is writable &prompt.root; savecore -N /kernel.panicked /var/crash &prompt.root; exit # ...to multi-user This instructs savecore8 to use another kernel for symbol name extraction. It would otherwise default to the currently running kernel and most likely not do anything at all since the crash dump and the kernel symbols differ. Now, after a crash dump, go to /sys/compile/WHATEVER and run kgdb. From kgdb do: symbol-file kernel.debug exec-file /var/crash/kernel.0 core-file /var/crash/vmcore.0 and voila, you can debug the crash dump using the kernel sources just like you can for any other program. Here is a script log of a kgdb session illustrating the procedure. Long lines have been folded to improve readability, and the lines are numbered for reference. Despite this, it is a real-world error trace taken during the development of the pcvt console driver. 1:Script started on Fri Dec 30 23:15:22 1994 2:&prompt.root; cd /sys/compile/URIAH 3:&prompt.root; kgdb kernel /var/crash/vmcore.1 4:Reading symbol data from /usr/src/sys/compile/URIAH/kernel...done. 5:IdlePTD 1f3000 6:panic: because you said to! 7:current pcb at 1e3f70 8:Reading in symbols for ../../i386/i386/machdep.c...done. 9:(kgdb) where 10:#0 boot (arghowto=256) (../../i386/i386/machdep.c line 767) 11:#1 0xf0115159 in panic () 12:#2 0xf01955bd in diediedie () (../../i386/i386/machdep.c line 698) 13:#3 0xf010185e in db_fncall () 14:#4 0xf0101586 in db_command (-266509132, -266509516, -267381073) 15:#5 0xf0101711 in db_command_loop () 16:#6 0xf01040a0 in db_trap () 17:#7 0xf0192976 in kdb_trap (12, 0, -272630436, -266743723) 18:#8 0xf019d2eb in trap_fatal (...) 19:#9 0xf019ce60 in trap_pfault (...) 20:#10 0xf019cb2f in trap (...) 21:#11 0xf01932a1 in exception:calltrap () 22:#12 0xf0191503 in cnopen (...) 23:#13 0xf0132c34 in spec_open () 24:#14 0xf012d014 in vn_open () 25:#15 0xf012a183 in open () 26:#16 0xf019d4eb in syscall (...) 27:(kgdb) up 10 28:Reading in symbols for ../../i386/i386/trap.c...done. 29:#10 0xf019cb2f in trap (frame={tf_es = -260440048, tf_ds = 16, tf_\ 30:edi = 3072, tf_esi = -266445372, tf_ebp = -272630356, tf_isp = -27\ 31:2630396, tf_ebx = -266427884, tf_edx = 12, tf_ecx = -266427884, tf\ 32:_eax = 64772224, tf_trapno = 12, tf_err = -272695296, tf_eip = -26\ 33:6672343, tf_cs = -266469368, tf_eflags = 66066, tf_esp = 3072, tf_\ 34:ss = -266427884}) (../../i386/i386/trap.c line 283) 35:283 (void) trap_pfault(&frame, FALSE); 36:(kgdb) frame frame->tf_ebp frame->tf_eip 37:Reading in symbols for ../../i386/isa/pcvt/pcvt_drv.c...done. 38:#0 0xf01ae729 in pcopen (dev=3072, flag=3, mode=8192, p=(struct p\ 39:roc *) 0xf07c0c00) (../../i386/isa/pcvt/pcvt_drv.c line 403) 40:403 return ((*linesw[tp->t_line].l_open)(dev, tp)); 41:(kgdb) list 42:398 43:399 tp->t_state |= TS_CARR_ON; 44:400 tp->t_cflag |= CLOCAL; /* cannot be a modem (:-) */ 45:401 46:402 #if PCVT_NETBSD || (PCVT_FREEBSD >= 200) 47:403 return ((*linesw[tp->t_line].l_open)(dev, tp)); 48:404 #else 49:405 return ((*linesw[tp->t_line].l_open)(dev, tp, flag)); 50:406 #endif /* PCVT_NETBSD || (PCVT_FREEBSD >= 200) */ 51:407 } 52:(kgdb) print tp 53:Reading in symbols for ../../i386/i386/cons.c...done. 54:$1 = (struct tty *) 0x1bae 55:(kgdb) print tp->t_line 56:$2 = 1767990816 57:(kgdb) up 58:#1 0xf0191503 in cnopen (dev=0x00000000, flag=3, mode=8192, p=(st\ 59:ruct proc *) 0xf07c0c00) (../../i386/i386/cons.c line 126) 60: return ((*cdevsw[major(dev)].d_open)(dev, flag, mode, p)); 61:(kgdb) up 62:#2 0xf0132c34 in spec_open () 63:(kgdb) up 64:#3 0xf012d014 in vn_open () 65:(kgdb) up 66:#4 0xf012a183 in open () 67:(kgdb) up 68:#5 0xf019d4eb in syscall (frame={tf_es = 39, tf_ds = 39, tf_edi =\ 69: 2158592, tf_esi = 0, tf_ebp = -272638436, tf_isp = -272629788, tf\ 70:_ebx = 7086, tf_edx = 1, tf_ecx = 0, tf_eax = 5, tf_trapno = 582, \ 71:tf_err = 582, tf_eip = 75749, tf_cs = 31, tf_eflags = 582, tf_esp \ 72:= -272638456, tf_ss = 39}) (../../i386/i386/trap.c line 673) 73:673 error = (*callp->sy_call)(p, args, rval); 74:(kgdb) up 75:Initial frame selected; you cannot go up. 76:(kgdb) quit 77:&prompt.root; exit 78:exit 79: 80:Script done on Fri Dec 30 23:18:04 1994 Comments to the above script: line 6: This is a dump taken from within DDB (see below), hence the panic comment because you said to!, and a rather long stack trace; the initial reason for going into DDB has been a page fault trap though. line 20: This is the location of function trap() in the stack trace. line 36: Force usage of a new stack frame; this is no longer necessary now. The stack frames are supposed to point to the right locations now, even in case of a trap. (I do not have a new core dump handy <g>, my kernel has not panicked for a rather long time.) From looking at the code in source line 403, there is a high probability that either the pointer access for tp was messed up, or the array access was out of bounds. line 52: The pointer looks suspicious, but happens to be a valid address. line 56: However, it obviously points to garbage, so we have found our error! (For those unfamiliar with that particular piece of code: tp->t_line refers to the line discipline of the console device here, which must be a rather small integer number.) Post-mortem Analysis of a Dump What do you do if a kernel dumped core but you did not expect it, and it is therefore not compiled using config -g? Not everything is lost here. Do not panic! Of course, you still need to enable crash dumps. See above on the options you have to specify in order to do this. Go to your kernel compile directory, and edit the line containing COPTFLAGS?=-O. Add the option there (but do not change anything on the level of optimization). If you do already know roughly the probable location of the failing piece of code (e.g., the pcvt driver in the example above), remove all the object files for this code. Rebuild the kernel. Due to the time stamp change on the Makefile, there will be some other object files rebuild, for example trap.o. With a bit of luck, the added option will not change anything for the generated code, so you will finally get a new kernel with similar code to the faulting one but some debugging symbols. You should at least verify the old and new sizes with the size1 command. If there is a mismatch, you probably need to give up here. Go and examine the dump as described above. The debugging symbols might be incomplete for some places, as can be seen in the stack trace in the example above where some functions are displayed without line numbers and argument lists. If you need more debugging symbols, remove the appropriate object files and repeat the kgdb session until you know enough. All this is not guaranteed to work, but it will do it fine in most cases. On-line Kernel Debugging Using DDB While kgdb as an offline debugger provides a very high level of user interface, there are some things it cannot do. The most important ones being breakpointing and single-stepping kernel code. If you need to do low-level debugging on your kernel, there is an on-line debugger available called DDB. It allows to setting breakpoints, single-steping kernel functions, examining and changing kernel variables, etc. However, it cannot access kernel source files, and only has access to the global and static symbols, not to the full debug information like kgdb. To configure your kernel to include DDB, add the option line options DDB to your config file, and rebuild. (See for details on configuring the FreeBSD kernel. Note that if you have an older version of the boot blocks, your debugger symbols might not be loaded at all. Update the boot blocks; the recent ones load the DDB symbols automagically.) Once your DDB kernel is running, there are several ways to enter DDB. The first, and earliest way is to type the boot flag right at the boot prompt. The kernel will start up in debug mode and enter DDB prior to any device probing. Hence you can even debug the device probe/attach functions. The second scenario is a hot-key on the keyboard, usually Ctrl-Alt-ESC. For syscons, this can be remapped; some of the distributed maps do this, so watch out. There is an option available for serial consoles that allows the use of a serial line BREAK on the console line to enter DDB (options BREAK_TO_DEBUGGER in the kernel config file). It is not the default since there are a lot of crappy serial adapters around that gratuitously generate a BREAK condition, for example when pulling the cable. The third way is that any panic condition will branch to DDB if the kernel is configured to use it. For this reason, it is not wise to configure a kernel with DDB for a machine running unattended. The DDB commands roughly resemble some gdb commands. The first thing you probably need to do is to set a breakpoint: b function-name b address Numbers are taken hexadecimal by default, but to make them distinct from symbol names; hexadecimal numbers starting with the letters a-f need to be preceded with 0x (this is optional for other numbers). Simple expressions are allowed, for example: function-name + 0x103. To continue the operation of an interrupted kernel, simply type: c To get a stack trace, use: trace Note that when entering DDB via a hot-key, the kernel is currently servicing an interrupt, so the stack trace might be not of much use for you. If you want to remove a breakpoint, use del del address-expression The first form will be accepted immediately after a breakpoint hit, and deletes the current breakpoint. The second form can remove any breakpoint, but you need to specify the exact address; this can be obtained from: show b To single-step the kernel, try: s This will step into functions, but you can make DDB trace them until the matching return statement is reached by: n This is different from gdb's next statement; it is like gdb's finish. To examine data from memory, use (for example): x/wx 0xf0133fe0,40 x/hd db_symtab_space x/bc termbuf,10 x/s stringbuf for word/halfword/byte access, and hexadecimal/decimal/character/ string display. The number after the comma is the object count. To display the next 0x10 items, simply use: x ,10 Similarly, use x/ia foofunc,10 to disassemble the first 0x10 instructions of foofunc, and display them along with their offset from the beginning of foofunc. To modify memory, use the write command: w/b termbuf 0xa 0xb 0 w/w 0xf0010030 0 0 The command modifier (b/h/w) specifies the size of the data to be written, the first following expression is the address to write to and the remainder is interpreted as data to write to successive memory locations. If you need to know the current registers, use: show reg Alternatively, you can display a single register value by e.g. p $eax and modify it by: set $eax new-value Should you need to call some kernel functions from DDB, simply say: call func(arg1, arg2, ...) The return value will be printed. For a ps1 style summary of all running processes, use: ps Now you have now examined why your kernel failed, and you wish to reboot. Remember that, depending on the severity of previous malfunctioning, not all parts of the kernel might still be working as expected. Perform one of the following actions to shut down and reboot your system: call diediedie() This will cause your kernel to dump core and reboot, so you can later analyze the core on a higher level with kgdb. This command usually must be followed by another continue statement. There is now an alias for this: panic. call boot(0) Which might be a good way to cleanly shut down the running system, sync() all disks, and finally reboot. As long as the disk and file system interfaces of the kernel are not damaged, this might be a good way for an almost clean shutdown. call cpu_reset() is the final way out of disaster and almost the same as hitting the Big Red Button. If you need a short command summary, simply type: help However, it is highly recommended to have a printed copy of the ddb4 manual page ready for a debugging session. Remember that it is hard to read the on-line manual while single-stepping the kernel. On-line Kernel Debugging Using Remote GDB This feature has been supported since FreeBSD 2.2, and it's actually a very neat one. GDB has already supported remote debugging for a long time. This is done using a very simple protocol along a serial line. Unlike the other methods described above, you will need two machines for doing this. One is the host providing the debugging environment, including all the sources, and a copy of the kernel binary with all the symbols in it, and the other one is the target machine that simply runs a similar copy of the very same kernel (but stripped of the debugging information). You should configure the kernel in question with config -g, include into the configuration, and compile it as usual. This gives a large blurb of a binary, due to the debugging information. Copy this kernel to the target machine, strip the debugging symbols off with strip -x, and boot it using the boot option. Connect the first serial line of the target machine to any serial line of the debugging host. Now, on the debugging machine, go to the compile directory of the target kernel, and start gdb: &prompt.user; gdb -k kernel GDB is free software and you are welcome to distribute copies of it under certain conditions; type "show copying" to see the conditions. There is absolutely no warranty for GDB; type "show warranty" for details. GDB 4.16 (i386-unknown-freebsd), Copyright 1996 Free Software Foundation, Inc... (kgdb) Initialize the remote debugging session (assuming the first serial port is being used) by: (kgdb) target remote /dev/cuaa0 Now, on the target host (the one that entered DDB right before even starting the device probe), type: Debugger("Boot flags requested debugger") Stopped at Debugger+0x35: movb $0, edata+0x51bc db> gdb DDB will respond with: Next trap will enter GDB remote protocol mode Every time you type gdb, the mode will be toggled between remote GDB and local DDB. In order to force a next trap immediately, simply type s (step). Your hosting GDB will now gain control over the target kernel: Remote debugging using /dev/cuaa0 Debugger (msg=0xf01b0383 "Boot flags requested debugger") at ../../i386/i386/db_interface.c:257 (kgdb) You can use this session almost as any other GDB session, including full access to the source, running it in gud-mode inside an Emacs window (which gives you an automatic source code display in another Emacs window) etc. Remote GDB can also be used to debug LKMs. First build the LKM with debugging symbols: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/lkm/linux &prompt.root; make clean; make COPTS=-g Then install this version of the module on the target machine, load it and use modstat to find out where it was loaded: &prompt.root; linux &prompt.root; modstat Type Id Off Loadaddr Size Info Rev Module Name EXEC 0 4 f5109000 001c f510f010 1 linux_mod Take the load address of the module and add 0x20 (probably to account for the a.out header). This is the address that the module code was relocated to. Use the add-symbol-file command in GDB to tell the debugger about the module: (kgdb) add-symbol-file /usr/src/lkm/linux/linux_mod.o 0xf5109020 add symbol table from file "/usr/src/lkm/linux/linux_mod.o" at text_addr = 0xf5109020? (y or n) y (kgdb) You now have access to all the symbols in the LKM. Debugging a Console Driver Since you need a console driver to run DDB on, things are more complicated if the console driver itself is failing. You might remember the use of a serial console (either with modified boot blocks, or by specifying at the Boot: prompt), and hook up a standard terminal onto your first serial port. DDB works on any configured console driver, of course also on a serial console. Linux Emulation Contributed by &a.handy; and &a.rich; How to Install the Linux Emulator Linux emulation in FreeBSD has reached a point where it is possible to run a large fraction of Linux binaries in both a.out and ELF format. The linux emulation in the 2.1-STABLE branch is capable of running Linux DOOM and Mathematica; the version present in FreeBSD-2.2-RELEASE is vastly more capable and runs all these as well as Quake, Abuse, IDL, netrek for Linux and a whole host of other programs. There are some Linux-specific operating system features that are not supported on FreeBSD. Linux binaries will not work on FreeBSD if they use the Linux /proc filesystem (which is different from the optional FreeBSD /proc filesystem) or i386-specific calls, such as enabling virtual 8086 mode. To tell whether your kernel is configured for Linux compatibility simply run any Linux binary. If it prints the error message linux-executable: Exec format error. Wrong Architecture. then you do not have linux compatibility support and you need to configure and install a new kernel. Depending on which version of FreeBSD you are running, how you get Linux-emulation up will vary slightly: Installing Linux Emulation in 2.1-STABLE The GENERIC kernel in 2.1-STABLE is not configured for linux compatibility so you must reconfigure your kernel for it. There are two ways to do this: 1. linking the emulator statically in the kernel itself and 2. configuring your kernel to dynamically load the linux loadable kernel module (LKM). To enable the emulator, add the following to your configuration file (c.f. /sys/i386/conf/LINT): options COMPAT_LINUX If you want to run doom or other applications that need shared memory, also add the following. options SYSVSHM The linux system calls require 4.3BSD system call compatibility. So make sure you have the following. options "COMPAT_43" If you prefer to statically link the emulator in the kernel rather than use the loadable kernel module (LKM), then add options LINUX Then run config and install the new kernel as described in the section. If you decide to use the LKM you must also install the loadable module. A mismatch of versions between the kernel and loadable module can cause the kernel to crash, so the safest thing to do is to reinstall the LKM when you install the kernel. &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/lkm/linux &prompt.root; make all install Once you have installed the kernel and the LKM, you can invoke `linux' as root to load the LKM. &prompt.root; linux Linux emulator installed Module loaded as ID 0 To see whether the LKM is loaded, run modstat. &prompt.user; modstat Type Id Off Loadaddr Size Info Rev Module Name EXEC 0 3 f0baf000 0018 f0bb4000 1 linux_emulator You can cause the LKM to be loaded when the system boots in either of two ways. In FreeBSD 2.2.1-RELEASE and 2.1-STABLE enable it in /etc/sysconfig linux=YES by changing it from NO to YES. FreeBSD 2.1 RELEASE and earlier do not have such a line and on those you will need to edit /etc/rc.local to add the following line. linux Installing Linux Emulation in 2.2.2-RELEASE and later It is no longer necessary to specify options LINUX or options COMPAT_LINUX. Linux emulation is done with an LKM (Loadable Kernel Module) so it can be installed on the fly without having to reboot. You will need the following things in your startup files, however: In /etc/rc.conf, you need the following line: linux_enable=YES This, in turn, triggers the following action in /etc/rc.i386: # Start the Linux binary emulation if requested. if [ "X${linux_enable}" = X"YES" ]; then echo -n ' linux'; linux > /dev/null 2>&1 fi If you want to verify it is running, modstat will do that: &prompt.user; modstat Type Id Off Loadaddr Size Info Rev Module Name EXEC 0 4 f09e6000 001c f09ec010 1 linux_mod However, there have been reports that this fails on some 2.2-RELEASE and later systems. If for some reason you cannot load the linux LKM, then statically link the emulator in the kernel by adding options LINUX to your kernel config file. Then run config and install the new kernel as described in the section. Installing Linux Runtime Libraries Installing using the linux_lib port Most linux applications use shared libraries, so you are still not done until you install the shared libraries. It is possible to do this by hand, however, it is vastly simpler to just grab the linux_lib port: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports-current/emulators/linux_lib &prompt.root; make all install and you should have a working linux emulator. Legend (and the mail archives :-) seems to hold that Linux emulation works best with linux binaries linked against the ZMAGIC libraries; QMAGIC libraries (such as those used in Slackware V2.0) may tend to give the Linuxulator heartburn. As of this writing (March 1996) ELF emulation is still in the formulative stages but seems to work pretty well. Also, expect some programs to complain about incorrect minor versions. In general this does not seem to be a problem. Installing libraries manually If you do not have the ports distribution, you can install the libraries by hand instead. You will need the Linux shared libraries that the program depends on and the runtime linker. Also, you will need to create a "shadow root" directory, /compat/linux, for Linux libraries on your FreeBSD system. Any shared libraries opened by Linux programs run under FreeBSD will look in this tree first. So, if a Linux program loads, for example, /lib/libc.so, FreeBSD will first try to open /compat/linux/lib/libc.so, and if that does not exist then it will try /lib/libc.so. Shared libraries should be installed in the shadow tree /compat/linux/lib rather than the paths that the Linux ld.so reports. FreeBSD-2.2-RELEASE and later works slightly differently with respect to /compat/linux. On -CURRENT, all files, not just libraries, are searched for from the shadow root /compat/linux. Generally, you will need to look for the shared libraries that Linux binaries depend on only the first few times that you install a Linux program on your FreeBSD system. After a while, you will have a sufficient set of Linux shared libraries on your system to be able to run newly imported Linux binaries without any extra work. How to install additional shared libraries What if you install the linux_lib port and your application still complains about missing shared libraries? How do you know which shared libraries Linux binaries need, and where to get them? Basically, there are 2 possibilities (when following these instructions: you will need to be root on your FreeBSD system to do the necessary installation steps). If you have access to a Linux system, see what shared libraries it needs, and copy them to your FreeBSD system. Example: you have just ftp'ed the Linux binary of Doom. Put it on the Linux system you have access to, and check which shared libraries it needs by running ldd linuxxdoom: &prompt.user; ldd linuxxdoom libXt.so.3 (DLL Jump 3.1) => /usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3.1.0 libX11.so.3 (DLL Jump 3.1) => /usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3.1.0 libc.so.4 (DLL Jump 4.5pl26) => /lib/libc.so.4.6.29 You would need to get all the files from the last column, and put them under /compat/linux, with the names in the first column as symbolic links pointing to them. This means you eventually have these files on your FreeBSD system: /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3.1.0 /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3 -> libXt.so.3.1.0 /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3.1.0 /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3 -> libX11.so.3.1.0 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.29 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -> libc.so.4.6.29 Note that if you already have a Linux shared library with a matching major revision number to the first column of the ldd output, you will not need to copy the file named in the last column to your system, the one you already have should work. It is advisable to copy the shared library anyway if it is a newer version, though. You can remove the old one, as long as you make the symbolic link point to the new one. So, if you have these libraries on your system: /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.27 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -> libc.so.4.6.27 and you find a new binary that claims to require a later version according to the output of ldd: libc.so.4 (DLL Jump 4.5pl26) -> libc.so.4.6.29 If it is only one or two versions out of date in the in the trailing digit then do not worry about copying /lib/libc.so.4.6.29 too, because the program should work fine with the slightly older version. However, if you like you can decide to replace the libc.so anyway, and that should leave you with: /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.29 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -> libc.so.4.6.29 The symbolic link mechanism is only needed for Linux binaries. The FreeBSD runtime linker takes care of looking for matching major revision numbers itself and you do not need to worry about it. Configuring the <filename>ld.so</filename> — for FreeBSD 2.2-RELEASE only This section applies only to FreeBSD 2.2-RELEASE and later. Those running 2.1-STABLE should skip this section. Finally, if you run FreeBSD 2.2-RELEASE you must make sure that you have the Linux runtime linker and its config files on your system. You should copy these files from the Linux system to their appropriate place on your FreeBSD system (to the /compat/linux tree): /compat/linux/lib/ld.so /compat/linux/etc/ld.so.config If you do not have access to a Linux system, you should get the extra files you need from various ftp sites. Information on where to look for the various files is appended below. For now, let us assume you know where to get the files. Retrieve the following files (all from the same ftp site to avoid any version mismatches), and install them under /compat/linux (i.e. /foo/bar is installed as /compat/linux/foo/bar): /sbin/ldconfig /usr/bin/ldd /lib/libc.so.x.y.z /lib/ld.so ldconfig and ldd do not necessarily need to be under /compat/linux; you can install them elsewhere in the system too. Just make sure they do not conflict with their FreeBSD counterparts. A good idea would be to install them in /usr/local/bin as ldconfig-linux and ldd-linux. Create the file /compat/linux/etc/ld.so.conf, containing the directories in which the Linux runtime linker should look for shared libs. It is a plain text file, containing a directory name on each line. /lib and /usr/lib are standard, you could add the following: /usr/X11/lib /usr/local/lib When a linux binary opens a library such as /lib/libc.so the emulator maps the name to /compat/linux/lib/libc.so internally. All linux libraries should be installed under /compat/linux (e.g. /compat/linux/lib/libc.so, /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libX11.so, etc.) in order for the emulator to find them. Those running FreeBSD 2.2-RELEASE should run the Linux ldconfig program. &prompt.root cd /compat/linux/lib &prompt.root; /compat/linux/sbin/ldconfig ldconfig is statically linked, so it does not need any shared libraries to run. It creates the file /compat/linux/etc/ld.so.cache which contains the names of all the shared libraries and should be rerun to recreate this file whenever you install additional shared libraries. On 2.1-STABLE do not install /compat/linux/etc/ld.so.cache or run ldconfig; in 2.1-STABLE the syscalls are implemented differently and ldconfig is not needed or used. You should now be set up for Linux binaries which only need a shared libc. You can test this by running the Linux ldd on itself. Supposing that you have it installed as ldd-linux, it should produce something like: &prompt.root; ldd-linux `which ldd-linux` libc.so.4 (DLL Jump 4.5pl26) => /lib/libc.so.4.6.29 This being done, you are ready to install new Linux binaries. Whenever you install a new Linux program, you should check if it needs shared libraries, and if so, whether you have them installed in the /compat/linux tree. To do this, you run the Linux version ldd on the new program, and watch its output. ldd (see also the manual page for ldd1) will print a list of shared libraries that the program depends on, in the form majorname (jumpversion) => fullname. If it prints not found instead of fullname it means that you need an extra library. The library needed is shown in majorname and will be of the form libXXXX.so.N. You will need to find a libXXXX.so.N.mm on a Linux ftp site, and install it on your system. The XXXX (name) and N (major revision number) should match; the minor number(s) mm are less important, though it is advised to take the most recent version. Configuring the host name resolver If DNS does not work or you get the messages resolv+: "bind" is an invalid keyword resolv+: "hosts" is an invalid keyword then you need to configure a /compat/linux/etc/host.conf file containing: order hosts, bind multi on where the order here specifies that /etc/hosts is searched first and DNS is searched second. When /compat/linux/etc/host.conf is not installed linux applications find FreeBSD's /etc/host.conf and complain about the incompatible FreeBSD syntax. You should remove bind if you have not configured a name-server using the /etc/resolv.conf file. Lastly, those who run 2.1-STABLE need to set an the RESOLV_HOST_CONF environment variable so that applications will know how to search the host tables. If you run FreeBSD 2.2-RELEASE, you can skip this. For the /bin/csh shell use: &prompt.user; setenv RESOLV_HOST_CONF /compat/linux/etc/host.conf For /bin/sh use: &prompt.user; RESOLV_HOST_CONF=/compat/linux/etc/host.conf; export RESOLV_HOST_CONF Finding the necessary files The information below is valid as of the time this document was written, but certain details such as names of ftp sites, directories and distribution names may have changed by the time you read this. Linux is distributed by several groups that make their own set of binaries that they distribute. Each distribution has its own name, like Slackware or Yggdrasil. The distributions are available on a lot of ftp sites. Sometimes the files are unpacked, and you can get the individual files you need, but mostly they are stored in distribution sets, usually consisting of subdirectories with gzipped tar files in them. The primary ftp sites for the distributions are: sunsite.unc.edu:/pub/Linux/distributions tsx-11.mit.edu:/pub/linux/distributions Some European mirrors: ftp.luth.se:/pub/linux/distributions ftp.demon.co.uk:/pub/linux/distributions src.doc.ic.ac.uk:/packages/linux/distributions For simplicity, let us concentrate on Slackware here. This distribution consists of a number of subdirectories, containing separate packages. Normally, they are controlled by an install program, but you can retrieve files by hand too. First of all, you will need to look in the contents subdir of the distribution. You will find a lot of small text files here describing the contents of the separate packages. The fastest way to look something up is to retrieve all the files in the contents subdirectory, and grep through them for the file you need. Here is an example of a list of files that you might need, and in which contents-file you will find it by grepping through them: Library Package ld.so ldso ldconfig ldso ldd ldso libc.so.4 shlibs libX11.so.6.0 xf_lib libXt.so.6.0 xf_lib libX11.so.3 oldlibs libXt.so.3 oldlibs So, in this case, you will need the packages ldso, shlibs, xf_lib and oldlibs. In each of the contents-files for these packages, look for a line saying PACKAGE LOCATION, it will tell you on which disk the package is, in our case it will tell us in which subdirectory we need to look. For our example, we would find the following locations: Package Location ldso diska2 shlibs diska2 oldlibs diskx6 xf_lib diskx9 The locations called diskXX refer to the slakware/XX subdirectories of the distribution, others may be found in the contrib subdirectory. In this case, we could now retrieve the packages we need by retrieving the following files (relative to the root of the Slackware distribution tree): slakware/a2/ldso.tgz slakware/a2/shlibs.tgz slakware/x6/oldlibs/tgz slakware/x9/xf_lib.tgz Extract the files from these gzipped tarfiles in your /compat/linux directory (possibly omitting or afterwards removing files you do not need), and you are done. See also: ftp.freebsd.org:pub/FreeBSD/2.0.5-RELEASE/xperimnt/linux-emu/README and /usr/src/sys/i386/ibcs2/README.iBCS2 How to Install Mathematica on FreeBSD Contributed by &a.rich; and &a.chuck; This document shows how to install the Linux binary distribution of Mathematica 2.2 on FreeBSD 2.1. Mathematica supports Linux but not FreeBSD as it stands. So once you have configured your system for Linux compatibility you have most of what you need to run Mathematica. For those who already have the student edition of Mathematica for DOS the cost of upgrading to the Linux version at the time this was written, March 1996, was $45.00. It can be ordered directly from Wolfram at (217) 398-6500 and paid for by credit card. Unpacking the Mathematica distribution The binaries are currently distributed by Wolfram on CDROM. The CDROM has about a dozen tar files, each of which is a binary distribution for one of the supported architectures. The one for Linux is named LINUX.TAR. You can, for example, unpack this into /usr/local/Mathematica: &prompt.root; cd /usr/local &prompt.root; mkdir Mathematica &prompt.root; cd Mathematica &prompt.root; tar -xvf /cdrom/LINUX.TAR Obtaining your Mathematica Password Before you can run Mathematica you will have to obtain a password from Wolfram that corresponds to your machine ID. Once you have installed the linux compatibility runtime libraries and unpacked the mathematica you can obtain the machine ID by running the program mathinfo in the Install directory. &prompt.root; cd /usr/local/Mathematica/Install &prompt.root; mathinfo LINUX: 'ioctl' fd=5, typ=0x89(), num=0x27 not implemented richc.isdn.bcm.tmc.edu 9845-03452-90255 So, for example, the machine ID of richc is 9845-03452-90255. You can ignore the message about the ioctl that is not implemented. It will not prevent Mathematica from running in any way and you can safely ignore it, though you will see the message every time you run Mathematica. When you register with Wolfram, either by email, phone or fax, you will give them the machine ID and they will respond with a corresponding password consisting of groups of numbers. You need to add them both along with the machine name and license number in your mathpass file. You can do this by invoking: &prompt.root; cd /usr/local/Mathematica/Install &prompt.root; math.install It will ask you to enter your license number and the Wolfram supplied password. If you get them mixed up or for some reason the math.install fails, that is OK; you can simply edit the file mathpass in this same directory to correct the info manually. After getting past the password, math.install will ask you if you accept the install defaults provided, or if you want to use your own. If you are like us and distrust all install programs, you probably want to specify the actual directories. Beware. Although the math.install program asks you to specify directories, it will not create them for you, so you should perhaps have a second window open with another shell so that you can create them before you give them to the install program. Or, if it fails, you can create the directories and then restart the math.install program. The directories we chose to create beforehand and specify to math.install were: /usr/local/Mathematica/bin for binaries /usr/local/Mathematica/man/man1 for man pages /usr/local/Mathematica/lib/X11 for the XKeysymb file You can also tell it to use /tmp/math.record for the system record file, where it puts logs of sessions. After this math.install will continue on to unpacking things and placing everything where it should go. The Mathematica Notebook feature is included separately, as the X Front End, and you have to install it separately. To get the X Front End stuff correctly installed, cd into the /usr/local/Mathematica/FrontEnd directory and execute the xfe.install shell script. You will have to tell it where to put things, but you do not have to create any directories because it will use the same directories that had been created for math.install. When it finishes, there should be a new shell script in /usr/local/Mathematica/bin called mathematica. Lastly, you need to modify each of the shell scripts that Mathematica has installed. At the beginning of every shell script in /usr/local/Mathematica/bin add the following line: &prompt.user; XKEYSYMDB=/usr/local/Mathematica/lib/X11/XKeysymDB; export XKEYSYMDB This tells Mathematica were to find its own version of the key mapping file XKeysymDB. Without this you will get pages of error messages about missing key mappings. On 2.1-STABLE you need to add the following as well: &prompt.user; RESOLV_HOST_CONF=/compat/linux/etc/host.conf; export RESOLV_HOST_CONF This tells Mathematica to use the linux version of host.conf. This file has a different syntax from FreeBSD's host.conf, so you will get an error message about /etc/host.conf if you leave this out. You might also want to modify your /etc/manpath.config file to read the new man directory, and you may need to edit your ~/.cshrc file to add /usr/local/Mathematica/bin to your path. That is about all it takes. With this you should be able to type mathematica and get a really slick looking Mathematica Notebook screen up. Mathematica has included the Motif user interfaces, but it is compiled in statically, so you do not need the Motif libraries. Good luck doing this yourself! Bugs The Notebook front end is known to hang sometimes when reading notebook files with an error messages similar to: File .../Untitled-1.mb appears to be broken for OMPR.257.0 We have not found the cause for this, but it only affects the Notebook's X Window front end, not the mathematica engine itself. So the command line interface invoked by 'math' is unaffected by this bug. Acknowledgments A well-deserved thanks should go to &a.sos; and &a.peter; who made linux emulation what it is today, and Michael Smith who drove these two guys like dogs to get it to the point where it runs Linux binaries better than linux! :-) FreeBSD Internals The FreeBSD Booting Process Contributed by &a.phk;. v1.1, April 26th. Booting FreeBSD is essentially a three step process: load the kernel, determine the root filesystem and initialize user-land things. This leads to some interesting possibilities shown below. Loading a kernel We presently have three basic mechanisms for loading the kernel as described below: they all pass some information to the kernel to help the kernel decide what to do next. Biosboot Biosboot is our bootblocks. It consists of two files which will be installed in the first 8Kbytes of the floppy or hard-disk slice to be booted from. Biosboot can load a kernel from a FreeBSD filesystem. Dosboot Dosboot was written by DI. Christian Gusenbauer, and is unfortunately at this time one of the few pieces of code that will not compile under FreeBSD itself because it is written for Microsoft compilers. Dosboot will boot the kernel from a MS-DOS file or from a FreeBSD filesystem partition on the disk. It attempts to negotiate with the various and strange kinds of memory manglers that lurk in high memory on MS/DOS systems and usually wins them for its case. Netboot Netboot will try to find a supported Ethernet card, and use BOOTP, TFTP and NFS to find a kernel file to boot. Determine the root filesystem Once the kernel is loaded and the boot-code jumps to it, the kernel will initialize itself, trying to determine what hardware is present and so on; it then needs to find a root filesystem. Presently we support the following types of root filesystems: UFS This is the most normal type of root filesystem. It can reside on a floppy or on hard disk. MSDOS While this is technically possible, it is not particular useful because of the FAT filesystem's inability to deal with links, device nodes and other such UNIXisms. MFS This is actually a UFS filesystem which has been compiled into the kernel. That means that the kernel does not really need any hard disks, floppies or other hardware to function. CD9660 This is for using a CD-ROM as root filesystem. NFS This is for using a fileserver as root filesystem, basically making it a diskless machine. Initialize user-land things To get the user-land going, the kernel, when it has finished initialization, will create a process with pid == 1 and execute a program on the root filesystem; this program is normally /sbin/init. You can substitute any program for /sbin/init, as long as you keep in mind that: there is no stdin/out/err unless you open it yourself. If you exit, the machine panics. Signal handling is special for pid == 1. An example of this is the /stand/sysinstall program on the installation floppy. Interesting combinations Boot a kernel with a MFS in it with a special /sbin/init which... A — Using DOS mounts your C: as /C: Attaches C:/freebsd.fs on /dev/vn0 mounts /dev/vn0 as /rootfs makes symlinks /rootfs/bin -> /bin /rootfs/etc -> /etc /rootfs/sbin -> /sbin (etc...) Now you are running FreeBSD without repartitioning your hard disk... B — Using NFS NFS mounts your server:~you/FreeBSD as /nfs, chroots to /nfs and executes /sbin/init there Now you are running FreeBSD diskless, even though you do not control the NFS server... C — Start an X-server Now you have an X-terminal, which is better than that dingy X-under-windows-so-slow-you-can-see-what-it-does thing that your boss insist is better than forking out money on hardware. D — Using a tape Takes a copy of /dev/rwd0 and writes it to a remote tape station or fileserver. Now you finally get that backup you should have made a year ago... E — Acts as a firewall/web-server/what do I know... This is particularly interesting since you can boot from a write- protected floppy, but still write to your root filesystem... PC Memory Utilization Contributed by &a.joerg;. 16 Apr 1995. A short description of how FreeBSD uses memory on the i386 platform The boot sector will be loaded at 0:0x7c00, and relocates itself immediately to 0x7c0:0. (This is nothing magic, just an adjustment for the %cs selector, done by an ljmp.) It then loads the first 15 sectors at 0x10000 (segment BOOTSEG in the biosboot Makefile), and sets up the stack to work below 0x1fff0. After this, it jumps to the entry of boot2 within that code. I.e., it jumps over itself and the (dummy) partition table, and it is going to adjust the %cs selector—we are still in 16-bit mode there. boot2 asks for the boot file, and examines the a.out header. It masks the file entry point (usually 0xf0100000) by 0x00ffffff, and loads the file there. Hence the usual load point is 1 MB (0x00100000). During load, the boot code toggles back and forth between real and protected mode, to use the BIOS in real mode. The boot code itself uses segment selectors 0x18 and 0x20 for %cs and %ds/%es in protected mode, and 0x28 to jump back into real mode. The kernel is finally started with %cs 0x08 and %ds/%es/%ss 0x10, which refer to dummy descriptors covering the entire address space. The kernel will be started at its load point. Since it has been linked for another (high) address, it will have to execute PIC until the page table and page directory stuff is setup properly, at which point paging will be enabled and the kernel will finally run at the address for which it was linked. Contributed by &a.davidg;. 16 Apr 1995. The physical pages immediately following the kernel BSS contain proc0's page directory, page tables, and upages. Some time later when the VM system is initialized, the physical memory between 0x1000-0x9ffff and the physical memory after the kernel (text+data+bss+proc0 stuff+other misc) is made available in the form of general VM pages and added to the global free page list. DMA: What it Is and How it Works Copyright © 1995,1997 &a.uhclem;, All Rights Reserved. 10 December 1996. Last Update 8 October 1997. Direct Memory Access (DMA) is a method of allowing data to be moved from one location to another in a computer without intervention from the central processor (CPU). The way that the DMA function is implemented varies between computer architectures, so this discussion will limit itself to the implementation and workings of the DMA subsystem on the IBM Personal Computer (PC), the IBM PC/AT and all of its successors and clones. The PC DMA subsystem is based on the Intel 8237 DMA controller. The 8237 contains four DMA channels that can be programmed independently and any one of the channels may be active at any moment. These channels are numbered 0, 1, 2 and 3. Starting with the PC/AT, IBM added a second 8237 chip, and numbered those channels 4, 5, 6 and 7. The original DMA controller (0, 1, 2 and 3) moves one byte in each transfer. The second DMA controller (4, 5, 6, and 7) moves 16-bits from two adjacent memory locations in each transfer, with the first byte always coming from an even-numbered address. The two controllers are identical components and the difference in transfer size is caused by the way the second controller is wired into the system. The 8237 has two electrical signals for each channel, named DRQ and -DACK. There are additional signals with the names HRQ (Hold Request), HLDA (Hold Acknowledge), -EOP (End of Process), and the bus control signals -MEMR (Memory Read), -MEMW (Memory Write), -IOR (I/O Read), and -IOW (I/O Write). The 8237 DMA is known as a fly-by DMA controller. This means that the data being moved from one location to another does not pass through the DMA chip and is not stored in the DMA chip. Subsequently, the DMA can only transfer data between an I/O port and a memory address, but not between two I/O ports or two memory locations. The 8237 does allow two channels to be connected together to allow memory-to-memory DMA operations in a non-fly-by mode, but nobody in the PC industry uses this scarce resource this way since it is faster to move data between memory locations using the CPU. In the PC architecture, each DMA channel is normally activated only when the hardware that uses a given DMA channel requests a transfer by asserting the DRQ line for that channel. A Sample DMA transfer Here is an example of the steps that occur to cause and perform a DMA transfer. In this example, the floppy disk controller (FDC) has just read a byte from a diskette and wants the DMA to place it in memory at location 0x00123456. The process begins by the FDC asserting the DRQ2 signal (the DRQ line for DMA channel 2) to alert the DMA controller. The DMA controller will note that the DRQ2 signal is asserted. The DMA controller will then make sure that DMA channel 2 has been programmed and is unmasked (enabled). The DMA controller also makes sure that none of the other DMA channels are active or want to be active and have a higher priority. Once these checks are complete, the DMA asks the CPU to release the bus so that the DMA may use the bus. The DMA requests the bus by asserting the HRQ signal which goes to the CPU. The CPU detects the HRQ signal, and will complete executing the current instruction. Once the processor has reached a state where it can release the bus, it will. Now all of the signals normally generated by the CPU (-MEMR, -MEMW, -IOR, -IOW and a few others) are placed in a tri-stated condition (neither high or low) and then the CPU asserts the HLDA signal which tells the DMA controller that it is now in charge of the bus. Depending on the processor, the CPU may be able to execute a few additional instructions now that it no longer has the bus, but the CPU will eventually have to wait when it reaches an instruction that must read something from memory that is not in the internal processor cache or pipeline. Now that the DMA is in charge, the DMA activates its -MEMR, -MEMW, -IOR, -IOW output signals, and the address outputs from the DMA are set to 0x3456, which will be used to direct the byte that is about to transferred to a specific memory location. The DMA will then let the device that requested the DMA transfer know that the transfer is commencing. This is done by asserting the -DACK signal, or in the case of the floppy disk controller, -DACK2 is asserted. The floppy disk controller is now responsible for placing the byte to be transferred on the bus Data lines. Unless the floppy controller needs more time to get the data byte on the bus (and if the peripheral does need more time it alerts the DMA via the READY signal), the DMA will wait one DMA clock, and then de-assert the -MEMW and -IOR signals so that the memory will latch and store the byte that was on the bus, and the FDC will know that the byte has been transferred. Since the DMA cycle only transfers a single byte at a time, the FDC now drops the DRQ2 signal, so the DMA knows that it is no longer needed. The DMA will de-assert the -DACK2 signal, so that the FDC knows it must stop placing data on the bus. The DMA will now check to see if any of the other DMA channels have any work to do. If none of the channels have their DRQ lines asserted, the DMA controller has completed its work and will now tri-state the -MEMR, -MEMW, -IOR, -IOW and address signals. Finally, the DMA will de-assert the HRQ signal. The CPU sees this, and de-asserts the HOLDA signal. Now the CPU activates its -MEMR, -MEMW, -IOR, -IOW and address lines, and it resumes executing instructions and accessing main memory and the peripherals. For a typical floppy disk sector, the above process is repeated 512 times, once for each byte. Each time a byte is transferred, the address register in the DMA is incremented and the counter in the DMA that shows how many bytes are to be transferred is decremented. When the counter reaches zero, the DMA asserts the EOP signal, which indicates that the counter has reached zero and no more data will be transferred until the DMA controller is reprogrammed by the CPU. This event is also called the Terminal Count (TC). There is only one EOP signal, and since only DMA channel can be active at any instant, the DMA channel that is currently active must be the DMA channel that just completed its task. If a peripheral wants to generate an interrupt when the transfer of a buffer is complete, it can test for its -DACKn signal and the EOP signal both being asserted at the same time. When that happens, it means the DMA will not transfer any more information for that peripheral without intervention by the CPU. The peripheral can then assert one of the interrupt signals to get the processors' attention. In the PC architecture, the DMA chip itself is not capable of generating an interrupt. The peripheral and its associated hardware is responsible for generating any interrupt that occurs. Subsequently, it is possible to have a peripheral that uses DMA but does not use interrupts. It is important to understand that although the CPU always releases the bus to the DMA when the DMA makes the request, this action is invisible to both applications and the operating systems, except for slight changes in the amount of time the processor takes to execute instructions when the DMA is active. Subsequently, the processor must poll the peripheral, poll the registers in the DMA chip, or receive an interrupt from the peripheral to know for certain when a DMA transfer has completed. DMA Page Registers and 16Meg address space limitations You may have noticed earlier that instead of the DMA setting the address lines to 0x00123456 as we said earlier, the DMA only set 0x3456. The reason for this takes a bit of explaining. When the original IBM PC was designed, IBM elected to use both DMA and interrupt controller chips that were designed for use with the 8085, an 8-bit processor with an address space of 16 bits (64K). Since the IBM PC supported more than 64K of memory, something had to be done to allow the DMA to read or write memory locations above the 64K mark. What IBM did to solve this problem was to add an external data latch for each DMA channel that holds the upper bits of the address to be read to or written from. Whenever a DMA channel is active, the contents of that latch are written to the address bus and kept there until the DMA operation for the channel ends. IBM called these latches Page Registers. So for our example above, the DMA would put the 0x3456 part of the address on the bus, and the Page Register for DMA channel 2 would put 0x0012xxxx on the bus. Together, these two values form the complete address in memory that is to be accessed. Because the Page Register latch is independent of the DMA chip, the area of memory to be read or written must not span a 64K physical boundary. For example, if the DMA accesses memory location 0xffff, after that transfer the DMA will then increment the address register and the DMA will access the next byte at location 0x0000, not 0x10000. The results of letting this happen are probably not intended. Physical 64K boundaries should not be confused with 8086-mode 64K Segments, which are created by mathematically adding a segment register with an offset register. Page Registers have no address overlap and are mathematically OR-ed together. To further complicate matters, the external DMA address latches on the PC/AT hold only eight bits, so that gives us 8+16=24 bits, which means that the DMA can only point at memory locations between 0 and 16Meg. For newer computers that allow more than 16Meg of memory, the standard PC-compatible DMA cannot access memory locations above 16Meg. To get around this restriction, operating systems will reserve a RAM buffer in an area below 16Meg that also does not span a physical 64K boundary. Then the DMA will be programmed to transfer data from the peripheral and into that buffer. Once the DMA has moved the data into this buffer, the operating system will then copy the data from the buffer to the address where the data is really supposed to be stored. When writing data from an address above 16Meg to a DMA-based peripheral, the data must be first copied from where it resides into a buffer located below 16Meg, and then the DMA can copy the data from the buffer to the hardware. In FreeBSD, these reserved buffers are called Bounce Buffers. In the MS-DOS world, they are sometimes called Smart Buffers. A new implementation of the 8237, called the 82374, allows 16 bits of page register to be specified, allows access to the entire 32 bit address space, without the use of bounce buffers. DMA Operational Modes and Settings The 8237 DMA can be operated in several modes. The main ones are: Single A single byte (or word) is transferred. The DMA must release and re-acquire the bus for each additional byte. This is commonly-used by devices that cannot transfer the entire block of data immediately. The peripheral will request the DMA each time it is ready for another transfer. The standard PC-compatible floppy disk controller (NEC 765) only has a one-byte buffer, so it uses this mode. Block/Demand Once the DMA acquires the system bus, an entire block of data is transferred, up to a maximum of 64K. If the peripheral needs additional time, it can assert the READY signal to suspend the transfer briefly. READY should not be used excessively, and for slow peripheral transfers, the Single Transfer Mode should be used instead. The difference between Block and Demand is that once a Block transfer is started, it runs until the transfer count reaches zero. DRQ only needs to be asserted until -DACK is asserted. Demand Mode will transfer one more bytes until DRQ is de-asserted, at which point the DMA suspends the transfer and releases the bus back to the CPU. When DRQ is asserted later, the transfer resumes where it was suspended. Older hard disk controllers used Demand Mode until CPU speeds increased to the point that it was more efficient to transfer the data using the CPU, particularly if the memory locations used in the transfer were above the 16Meg mark. Cascade This mechanism allows a DMA channel to request the bus, but then the attached peripheral device is responsible for placing the addressing information on the bus instead of the DMA. This is also used to implement a technique known as Bus Mastering. When a DMA channel in Cascade Mode receives control of the bus, the DMA does not place addresses and I/O control signals on the bus like the DMA normally does when it is active. Instead, the DMA only asserts the -DACK signal for the active DMA channel. At this point it is up to the peripheral connected to that DMA channel to provide address and bus control signals. The peripheral has complete control over the system bus, and can do reads and/or writes to any address below 16Meg. When the peripheral is finished with the bus, it de-asserts the DRQ line, and the DMA controller can then return control to the CPU or to some other DMA channel. Cascade Mode can be used to chain multiple DMA controllers together, and this is exactly what DMA Channel 4 is used for in the PC architecture. When a peripheral requests the bus on DMA channels 0, 1, 2 or 3, the slave DMA controller asserts HLDREQ, but this wire is actually connected to DRQ4 on the primary DMA controller instead of to the CPU. The primary DMA controller, thinking it has work to do on Channel 4, requests the bus from the CPU using HLDREQ signal. Once the CPU grants the bus to the primary DMA controller, -DACK4 is asserted, and that wire is actually connected to the HLDA signal on the slave DMA controller. The slave DMA controller then transfers data for the DMA channel that requested it (0, 1, 2 or 3), or the slave DMA may grant the bus to a peripheral that wants to perform its own bus-mastering, such as a SCSI controller. Because of this wiring arrangement, only DMA channels 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 are usable with peripherals on PC/AT systems. DMA channel 0 was reserved for refresh operations in early IBM PC computers, but is generally available for use by peripherals in modern systems. When a peripheral is performing Bus Mastering, it is important that the peripheral transmit data to or from memory constantly while it holds the system bus. If the peripheral cannot do this, it must release the bus frequently so that the system can perform refresh operations on main memory. The Dynamic RAM used in all PCs for main memory must be accessed frequently to keep the bits stored in the components charged. Dynamic RAM essentially consists of millions of capacitors with each one holding one bit of data. These capacitors are charged with power to represent a 1 or drained to represent a 0. Because all capacitors leak, power must be added at regular intervals to keep the 1 values intact. The RAM chips actually handle the task of pumping power back into all of the appropriate locations in RAM, but they must be told when to do it by the rest of the computer so that the refresh activity won't interfere with the computer wanting to access RAM normally. If the computer is unable to refresh memory, the contents of memory will become corrupted in just a few milliseconds. Since memory read and write cycles count as refresh cycles (a dynamic RAM refresh cycle is actually an incomplete memory read cycle), as long as the peripheral controller continues reading or writing data to sequential memory locations, that action will refresh all of memory. Bus-mastering is found in some SCSI host interfaces and other high-performance peripheral controllers. Autoinitialize This mode causes the DMA to perform Byte, Block or Demand transfers, but when the DMA transfer counter reaches zero, the counter and address are set back to where they were when the DMA channel was originally programmed. This means that as long as the peripheral requests transfers, they will be granted. It is up to the CPU to move new data into the fixed buffer ahead of where the DMA is about to transfer it when doing output operations, and read new data out of the buffer behind where the DMA is writing when doing input operations. This technique is frequently used on audio devices that have small or no hardware sample buffers. There is additional CPU overhead to manage this circular buffer, but in some cases this may be the only way to eliminate the latency that occurs when the DMA counter reaches zero and the DMA stops transfers until it is reprogrammed. Programming the DMA The DMA channel that is to be programmed should always be masked before loading any settings. This is because the hardware might unexpectedly assert the DRQ for that channel, and the DMA might respond, even though not all of the parameters have been loaded or updated. Once masked, the host must specify the direction of the transfer (memory-to-I/O or I/O-to-memory), what mode of DMA operation is to be used for the transfer (Single, Block, Demand, Cascade, etc), and finally the address and length of the transfer are loaded. The length that is loaded is one less than the amount you expect the DMA to transfer. The LSB and MSB of the address and length are written to the same 8-bit I/O port, so another port must be written to first to guarantee that the DMA accepts the first byte as the LSB and the second byte as the MSB of the length and address. Then, be sure to update the Page Register, which is external to the DMA and is accessed through a different set of I/O ports. Once all the settings are ready, the DMA channel can be un-masked. That DMA channel is now considered to be armed, and will respond when the DRQ line for that channel is asserted. Refer to a hardware data book for precise programming details for the 8237. You will also need to refer to the I/O port map for the PC system, which describes where the DMA and Page Register ports are located. A complete port map table is located below. DMA Port Map All systems based on the IBM-PC and PC/AT have the DMA hardware located at the same I/O ports. The complete list is provided below. Ports assigned to DMA Controller #2 are undefined on non-AT designs. 0x00–0x1f DMA Controller #1 (Channels 0, 1, 2 and 3) DMA Address and Count Registers 0x00 write Channel 0 starting address 0x00 read Channel 0 current address 0x01 write Channel 0 starting word count 0x01 read Channel 0 remaining word count 0x02 write Channel 1 starting address 0x02 read Channel 1 current address 0x03 write Channel 1 starting word count 0x03 read Channel 1 remaining word count 0x04 write Channel 2 starting address 0x04 read Channel 2 current address 0x05 write Channel 2 starting word count 0x05 read Channel 2 remaining word count 0x06 write Channel 3 starting address 0x06 read Channel 3 current address 0x07 write Channel 3 starting word count 0x07 read Channel 3 remaining word count DMA Command Registers 0x08 write Command Register 0x08 read Status Register 0x09 write Request Register 0x09 read - 0x0a write Single Mask Register Bit 0x0a read - 0x0b write Mode Register 0x0b read - 0x0c write Clear LSB/MSB Flip-Flop 0x0c read - 0x0d write Master Clear/Reset 0x0d read Termporary Register (not available on newer versions) 0x0e write Clear Mask Register 0x0e read - 0x0f write Write All Mask Register Bits 0x0f read Read All Mask Register Bits (only in Intel 82374) 0xc0–0xdf DMA Controller #2 (Channels 4, 5, 6 and 7) DMA Address and Count Registers 0xc0 write Channel 4 starting address 0xc0 read Channel 4 current address 0xc2 write Channel 4 starting word count 0xc2 read Channel 4 remaining word count 0xc4 write Channel 5 starting address 0xc4 read Channel 5 current address 0xc6 write Channel 5 starting word count 0xc6 read Channel 5 remaining word count 0xc8 write Channel 6 starting address 0xc8 read Channel 6 current address 0xca write Channel 6 starting word count 0xca read Channel 6 remaining word count 0xcc write Channel 7 starting address 0xcc read Channel 7 current address 0xce write Channel 7 starting word count 0xce read Channel 7 remaining word count DMA Command Registers 0xd0 write Command Register 0xd0 read Status Register 0xd2 write Request Register 0xd2 read - 0xd4 write Single Mask Register Bit 0xd4 read - 0xd6 write Mode Register 0xd6 read - 0xd8 write Clear LSB/MSB Flip-Flop 0xd8 read - 0xda write Master Clear/Reset 0xda read Termporary Register (not present in Intel 82374) 0xdc write Clear Mask Register 0xdc read - 0xde write Write All Mask Register Bits 0xdf read Read All Mask Register Bits (only in Intel 82374) 0x80–0x9f DMA Page Registers 0x87 r/w Channel 0 Low byte (23-16) page Register 0x83 r/w Channel 1 Low byte (23-16) page Register 0x81 r/w Channel 2 Low byte (23-16) page Register 0x82 r/w Channel 3 Low byte (23-16) page Register 0x8b r/w Channel 5 Low byte (23-16) page Register 0x89 r/w Channel 6 Low byte (23-16) page Register 0x8a r/w Channel 7 Low byte (23-16) page Register 0x8f r/w Low byte page Refresh 0x400–0x4ff 82374 Enhanced DMA Registers The Intel 82374 EISA System Component (ESC) was introduced in early 1996 and includes a DMA controller that provides a superset of 8237 functionality as well as other PC-compatible core peripheral components in a single package. This chip is targeted at both EISA and PCI platforms, and provides modern DMA features like scatter-gather, ring buffers as well as direct access by the system DMA to all 32 bits of address space. If these features are used, code should also be included to provide similar functionality in the previous 16 years worth of PC-compatible computers. For compatibility reasons, some of the 82374 registers must be programmed after programming the traditional 8237 registers for each transfer. Writing to a traditional 8237 register forces the contents of some of the 82374 enhanced registers to zero to provide backward software compatibility. 0x401 r/w Channel 0 High byte (bits 23-16) word count 0x403 r/w Channel 1 High byte (bits 23-16) word count 0x405 r/w Channel 2 High byte (bits 23-16) word count 0x407 r/w Channel 3 High byte (bits 23-16) word count 0x4c6 r/w Channel 5 High byte (bits 23-16) word count 0x4ca r/w Channel 6 High byte (bits 23-16) word count 0x4ce r/w Channel 7 High byte (bits 23-16) word count 0x487 r/w Channel 0 High byte (bits 31-24) page Register 0x483 r/w Channel 1 High byte (bits 31-24) page Register 0x481 r/w Channel 2 High byte (bits 31-24) page Register 0x482 r/w Channel 3 High byte (bits 31-24) page Register 0x48b r/w Channel 5 High byte (bits 31-24) page Register 0x489 r/w Channel 6 High byte (bits 31-24) page Register 0x48a r/w Channel 6 High byte (bits 31-24) page Register 0x48f r/w High byte page Refresh 0x4e0 r/w Channel 0 Stop Register (bits 7-2) 0x4e1 r/w Channel 0 Stop Register (bits 15-8) 0x4e2 r/w Channel 0 Stop Register (bits 23-16) 0x4e4 r/w Channel 1 Stop Register (bits 7-2) 0x4e5 r/w Channel 1 Stop Register (bits 15-8) 0x4e6 r/w Channel 1 Stop Register (bits 23-16) 0x4e8 r/w Channel 2 Stop Register (bits 7-2) 0x4e9 r/w Channel 2 Stop Register (bits 15-8) 0x4ea r/w Channel 2 Stop Register (bits 23-16) 0x4ec r/w Channel 3 Stop Register (bits 7-2) 0x4ed r/w Channel 3 Stop Register (bits 15-8) 0x4ee r/w Channel 3 Stop Register (bits 23-16) 0x4f4 r/w Channel 5 Stop Register (bits 7-2) 0x4f5 r/w Channel 5 Stop Register (bits 15-8) 0x4f6 r/w Channel 5 Stop Register (bits 23-16) 0x4f8 r/w Channel 6 Stop Register (bits 7-2) 0x4f9 r/w Channel 6 Stop Register (bits 15-8) 0x4fa r/w Channel 6 Stop Register (bits 23-16) 0x4fc r/w Channel 7 Stop Register (bits 7-2) 0x4fd r/w Channel 7 Stop Register (bits 15-8) 0x4fe r/w Channel 7 Stop Register (bits 23-16) 0x40a write Channels 0-3 Chaining Mode Register 0x40a read Channel Interrupt Status Register 0x4d4 write Channels 4-7 Chaining Mode Register 0x4d4 read Chaining Mode Status 0x40c read Chain Buffer Expiration Control Register 0x410 write Channel 0 Scatter-Gather Command Register 0x411 write Channel 1 Scatter-Gather Command Register 0x412 write Channel 2 Scatter-Gather Command Register 0x413 write Channel 3 Scatter-Gather Command Register 0x415 write Channel 5 Scatter-Gather Command Register 0x416 write Channel 6 Scatter-Gather Command Register 0x417 write Channel 7 Scatter-Gather Command Register 0x418 read Channel 0 Scatter-Gather Status Register 0x419 read Channel 1 Scatter-Gather Status Register 0x41a read Channel 2 Scatter-Gather Status Register 0x41b read Channel 3 Scatter-Gather Status Register 0x41d read Channel 5 Scatter-Gather Status Register 0x41e read Channel 5 Scatter-Gather Status Register 0x41f read Channel 7 Scatter-Gather Status Register 0x420-0x423 r/w Channel 0 Scatter-Gather Descriptor Table Pointer Register 0x424-0x427 r/w Channel 1 Scatter-Gather Descriptor Table Pointer Register 0x428-0x42b r/w Channel 2 Scatter-Gather Descriptor Table Pointer Register 0x42c-0x42f r/w Channel 3 Scatter-Gather Descriptor Table Pointer Register 0x434-0x437 r/w Channel 5 Scatter-Gather Descriptor Table Pointer Register 0x438-0x43b r/w Channel 6 Scatter-Gather Descriptor Table Pointer Register 0x43c-0x43f r/w Channel 7 Scatter-Gather Descriptor Table Pointer Register Appendices Obtaining FreeBSD CD-ROM Publishers FreeBSD is available on CD-ROM from Walnut Creek CDROM:
Walnut Creek CDROM 4041 Pike Lane, Suite F Concord CA, 94520 USA Phone: +1 925 674-0783 Fax: +1 925 674-0821 Email: info@cdrom.com WWW: http://www.cdrom.com/
FTP Sites The official sources for FreeBSD are available via anonymous FTP from:
ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD.
Additionally, FreeBSD is available via anonymous FTP from the following mirror sites. If you choose to obtain FreeBSD via anonymous FTP, please try to use a site near you. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . Argentina In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@ar.FreeBSD.ORG for this domain. ftp://ftp.ar.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD Australia In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@au.FreeBSD.ORG for this domain. ftp://ftp.au.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp2.au.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp3.au.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp4.au.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD Brazil In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@br.FreeBSD.ORG for this domain. ftp://ftp.br.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp2.br.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp3.br.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp4.br.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp5.br.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp6.br.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp7.br.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD Canada In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@ca.FreeBSD.ORG for this domain. ftp://ftp.ca.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD Czech Republic ftp://sunsite.mff.cuni.cz/OS/FreeBSD Contact: jj@sunsite.mff.cuni.cz. Denmark In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@dk.FreeBSD.ORG for this domain. ftp://ftp.dk.freeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD Estonia In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@ee.FreeBSD.ORG for this domain. ftp://ftp.ee.freebsd.ORG/pub/FreeBSD Finland In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@fi.FreeBSD.ORG for this domain. ftp://ftp.fi.freebsd.ORG/pub/FreeBSD France ftp://ftp.ibp.fr/pub/FreeBSD Contact: Remy.Card@ibp.fr. Germany In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@de.FreeBSD.ORG for this domain. ftp://ftp.de.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp2.de.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp3.de.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp4.de.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp5.de.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp6.de.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp7.de.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD Hong Kong ftp://ftp.hk.super.net/pub/FreeBSD Contact: ftp-admin@HK.Super.NET. Ireland In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@ie.FreeBSD.ORG for this domain. ftp://ftp.ie.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD Israel In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@il.FreeBSD.ORG for this domain. ftp://ftp.il.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp2.il.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD Japan In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@jp.FreeBSD.ORG for this domain. ftp://ftp.jp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp2.jp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp3.jp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp4.jp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp5.jp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp6.jp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD Korea In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@kr.FreeBSD.ORG for this domain. ftp://ftp.kr.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp2.kr.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD Netherlands In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@nl.FreeBSD.ORG for this domain. ftp://ftp.nl.freebsd.ORG/pub/FreeBSD Poland In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@pl.FreeBSD.ORG for this domain. ftp://ftp.pl.freebsd.ORG/pub/FreeBSD Portugal In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@pt.FreeBSD.ORG for this domain. ftp://ftp.pt.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp2.pt.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD Russia In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@ru.FreeBSD.ORG for this domain. ftp://ftp.ru.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp2.ru.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp3.ru.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD South Africa In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@za.FreeBSD.ORG for this domain. ftp://ftp.za.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp2.za.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp3.za.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD Slovenia In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@si.FreeBSD.ORG for this domain. ftp://ftp.si.freebsd.ORG/pub/FreeBSD Sweden In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@se.FreeBSD.ORG for this domain. ftp://ftp.se.freebsd.ORG/pub/FreeBSD Taiwan In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@tw.FreeBSD.ORG for this domain. ftp://ftp.tw.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp2.tw.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp3.tw.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD Thailand ftp://ftp.nectec.or.th/pub/FreeBSD Contact: ftpadmin@ftp.nectec.or.th. Ukraine ftp://ftp.ua.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD Contact: archer@lucky.net. UK In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@uk.FreeBSD.ORG for this domain. ftp://ftp.uk.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp2.uk.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp3.uk.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp4.uk.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD USA In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster hostmaster@FreeBSD.ORG for this domain. ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp2.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp3.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp4.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp5.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp6.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD The latest versions of export-restricted code for FreeBSD (2.0C or later) (eBones and secure) are being made available at the following locations. If you are outside the U.S. or Canada, please get secure (DES) and eBones (Kerberos) from one of the following foreign distribution sites: South Africa Hostmaster hostmaster@internat.FreeBSD.ORG for this domain. ftp://ftp.internat.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD ftp://ftp2.internat.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD Brazil Hostmaster hostmaster@br.FreeBSD.ORG for this domain. ftp://ftp.br.FreeBSD.ORG/pub/FreeBSD Finland ftp://nic.funet.fi/pub/unix/FreeBSD/eurocrypt Contact: count@nic.funet.fi. CTM Sites /FreeBSD is available via anonymous FTP from the following mirror sites. If you choose to obtain CTM via anonymous FTP, please try to use a site near you. In case of problems, please contact &a.phk;. California, Bay Area, official source ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/CTM Germany, Trier ftp://ftp.uni-trier.de/pub/unix/systems/BSD/FreeBSD/CTM South Africa, backup server for old deltas ftp://ftp.internat.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/CTM Taiwan/R.O.C, Chiayi ftp://ctm.tw.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/CTM ftp://ctm2.tw.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/CTM ftp://ctm3.tw.freebsd.org/pub/freebsd/CTM If you did not find a mirror near to you or the mirror is incomplete, try FTP search at http://ftpsearch.ntnu.no/ftpsearch. FTP search is a great free archie server in Trondheim, Norway. CVSup Sites servers for FreeBSD are running at the following sites: Argentina cvsup.ar.FreeBSD.ORG (maintainer msagre@cactus.fi.uba.ar) Australia cvsup.au.FreeBSD.ORG (maintainer dawes@physics.usyd.edu.au) Brazil cvsup.br.FreeBSD.ORG (maintainer cvsup@cvsup.br.freebsd.org) Canada cvsup.ca.FreeBSD.ORG (maintainer james@ican.net) Estonia cvsup.ee.FreeBSD.ORG (maintainer taavi@uninet.ee) Finland cvsup.fi.FreeBSD.ORG (maintainer count@key.sms.fi) Germany cvsup.de.FreeBSD.ORG (maintainer wosch@freebsd.org) cvsup2.de.FreeBSD.ORG (maintainer petzi@freebsd.org) cvsup3.de.FreeBSD.ORG (maintainer ag@leo.org) Japan cvsup.jp.FreeBSD.ORG (maintainer simokawa@sat.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp) cvsup2.jp.FreeBSD.ORG (maintainer max@FreeBSD.ORG) Netherlands cvsup.nl.FreeBSD.ORG (maintainer xaa@stack.nl) Norway cvsup.no.FreeBSD.ORG (maintainer Tor.Egge@idt.ntnu.no) Russia cvsup.ru.FreeBSD.ORG (maintainer mishania@demos.su) South Africa cvsup.za.FreeBSD.ORG (maintainer markm@FreeBSD.ORG) cvsup2.za.FreeBSD.ORG (maintainer markm@FreeBSD.ORG) Taiwan cvsup.tw.FreeBSD.ORG (maintainer jdli@freebsd.csie.nctu.edu.tw) Ukraine cvsup2.ua.FreeBSD.ORG (maintainer archer@lucky.net) United Kingdom cvsup.uk.FreeBSD.ORG (maintainer joe@pavilion.net) USA cvsup.FreeBSD.ORG (maintainer skynyrd@opus.cts.cwu.edu) cvsup2.FreeBSD.ORG (maintainer jdp@FreeBSD.ORG) cvsup3.FreeBSD.ORG (maintainer wollman@FreeBSD.ORG) The export-restricted code for FreeBSD (eBones and secure) is available via CVSup at the following international repository. Please use this site to get the export-restricted code, if you are outside the USA or Canada. South Africa cvsup.internat.FreeBSD.ORG (maintainer markm@FreeBSD.ORG) The following CVSup site is especially designed for users. Unlike the other CVSup mirrors, it is kept up-to-date by CTM. That means if you CVSup cvs-all with release=cvs from this site, you get a version of the repository (including the inevitable .ctm_status file) which is suitable for being updated using the CTM cvs-cur deltas. This allows users who track the entire cvs-all tree to go from CVSup to CTM without having to rebuild their repository from scratch using a fresh CTM base delta. This special feature only works for the cvs-all distribution with cvs as the release tag. CVSupping any other distribution and/or release will get you the specified distribution, but it will not be suitable for CTM updating. Because the current version of CTM does not preserve the timestamps of files, the timestamps at this mirror site are not the same as those at other mirror sites. Switching between this site and other sites is not recommended. It will work correctly, but will be somewhat inefficient. Germany ctm.FreeBSD.ORG (maintainer blank@fox.uni-trier.de) Bibliography While the manual pages provide the definitive reference for individual pieces of the FreeBSD operating system, they are notorious for not illustrating how to put the pieces together to make the whole operating system run smoothly. For this, there is no substitute for a good book on UNIX system administration and a good users' manual. Books & Magazines Specific to FreeBSD International books & Magazines: Using FreeBSD (in Chinese). FreeBSD for PC 98'ers (in Japanese), published by SHUWA System Co, LTD. ISBN 4-87966-468-5 C3055 P2900E. FreeBSD (in Japanese), published by CUTT. ISBN 4-906391-22-2 C3055 P2400E. Complete Introduction to FreeBSD (in Japanese), published by Shoeisha Co., Ltd. ISBN 4-88135-473-6 P3600E. Personal UNIX Starter Kit FreeBSD (in Japanese), published by ASCII. ISBN 4-7561-1733-3 P3000E. FreeBSD Handbook (Japanese translation), published by ASCII. ISBN 4-7561-1580-2 P3800E. English language books & Magazines: The Complete FreeBSD, published by Walnut Creek CDROM. Users' Guides Computer Systems Research Group, UC Berkeley. 4.4BSD User's Reference Manual. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1994. ISBN 1-56592-075-9 Computer Systems Research Group, UC Berkeley. 4.4BSD User's Supplementary Documents. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1994. ISBN 1-56592-076-7 UNIX in a Nutshell. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1990. ISBN 093717520X Mui, Linda. What You Need To Know When You Can't Find Your UNIX System Administrator. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1995. ISBN 1-56592-104-6 Ohio State University has written a UNIX Introductory Course which is available online in HTML and postscript format. Administrators' Guides Albitz, Paul and Liu, Cricket. DNS and BIND, 2nd Ed. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1997. ISBN 1-56592-236-0 Computer Systems Research Group, UC Berkeley. 4.4BSD System Manager's Manual. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1994. ISBN 1-56592-080-5 Costales, Brian, et al. Sendmail, 2nd Ed. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1997. ISBN 1-56592-222-0 Frisch, Æleen. Essential System Administration, 2nd Ed. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1995. ISBN 1-56592-127-5 Hunt, Craig. TCP/IP Network Administration. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1992. ISBN 0-937175-82-X Nemeth, Evi. UNIX System Administration Handbook. 2nd ed. Prentice Hall, 1995. ISBN 0131510517 Stern, Hal Managing NFS and NIS O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1991. ISBN 0-937175-75-7 Programmers' Guides Asente, Paul. X Window System Toolkit. Digital Press. ISBN 1-55558-051-3 Computer Systems Research Group, UC Berkeley. 4.4BSD Programmer's Reference Manual. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1994. ISBN 1-56592-078-3 Computer Systems Research Group, UC Berkeley. 4.4BSD Programmer's Supplementary Documents. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1994. ISBN 1-56592-079-1 Ellis, Margaret A. and Stroustrup, Bjarne. The Annotated C++ Reference Manual. Addison-Wesley, 1990. ISBN 0-201-51459-1 Harbison, Samuel P. and Steele, Guy L. Jr. C: A Reference Manual. 4rd ed. Prentice Hall, 1995. ISBN 0-13-326224-3 Kernighan, Brian and Dennis M. Ritchie. The C Programming Language.. PTR Prentice Hall, 1988. ISBN 0-13-110362-9 Lehey, Greg. Port UNIX Software. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1995. ISBN 1-56592-126-7 Plauger, P. J. The Standard C Library. Prentice Hall, 1992. ISBN 0-13-131509-9 Stevens, W. Richard. Advanced Programming in the UNIX Environment. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1992 ISBN 0-201-56317-7 Stevens, W. Richard. UNIX Network Programming. PTR Prentice Hall, 1990. ISBN 0-13-949876-1 Wells, Bill. Writing Serial Drivers for UNIX. Dr. Dobb's Journal. 19(15), December 1994. pp68-71, 97-99. Operating System Internals Andleigh, Prabhat K. UNIX System Architecture. Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1990. ISBN 0-13-949843-5 Jolitz, William. Porting UNIX to the 386. Dr. Dobb's Journal. January 1991-July 1992. Leffler, Samuel J., Marshall Kirk McKusick, Michael J Karels and John Quarterman The Design and Implementation of the 4.3BSD UNIX Operating System. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1989. ISBN 0-201-06196-1 Leffler, Samuel J., Marshall Kirk McKusick, The Design and Implementation of the 4.3BSD UNIX Operating System: Answer Book. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1991. ISBN 0-201-54629-9 McKusick, Marshall Kirk, Keith Bostic, Michael J Karels, and John Quarterman. The Design and Implementation of the 4.4BSD Operating System. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1996. ISBN 0-201-54979-4 Stevens, W. Richard. TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 1: The Protocols. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1996. ISBN 0-201-63346-9 Stevens, W. Richard. TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 3: TCP for Transactions, HTTP, NNTP and the UNIX Domain Protocols. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1996. ISBN 0-201-63495-3 Vahalia, Uresh. UNIX Internals -- The New Frontiers. Prentice Hall, 1996. ISBN 0-13-101908-2 Wright, Gary R. and W. Richard Stevens. TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 2: The Implementation. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-63354-X Security Reference Cheswick, William R. and Steven M. Bellovin. Firewalls and Internal Security: Repelling the Wily Hacker. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-63357-4 Garfinkel, Simson and Gene Spafford. Practical UNIX Security. 2nd Ed. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1996. ISBN 1-56592-148-8 Garfinkel, Simson. PGP Pretty Good Privacy O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1995. ISBN 1-56592-098-8 Hardware Reference Anderson, Don and Tom Shanley. Pentium Processor System Architecture. 2nd ed. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-40992-5 Ferraro, Richard F. Programmer's Guide to the EGA, VGA, and Super VGA Cards. 3rd ed. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-62490-7 Shanley, Tom. 80486 System Architecture. 3rd ed. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-40994-1 Shanley, Tom. ISA System Architecture. 3rd ed. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-40996-8 Shanley, Tom. PCI System Architecture. 3rd ed. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-40993-3 Van Gilluwe, Frank. The Undocumented PC. Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co., 1994. ISBN 0-201-62277-7 UNIX History Lion, John Lion's Commentary on UNIX, 6th Ed. With Source Code. ITP Media Group, 1996. ISBN 1573980137 Raymond, Eric s. The New Hacker's Dictonary, 3rd edition. MIT Press, 1996. ISBN 0-262-68092-0 Also known as the Jargon File Salus, Peter H. A quarter century of UNIX. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., 1994. ISBN 0-201-54777-5 Simon Garfinkel, Daniel Weise, Steven Strassmann. The UNIX-HATERS Handbook. IDG Books Worldwide, Inc., 1994. ISBN 1-56884-203-1 Don Libes, Sandy Ressler Life with UNIX — special edition. Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1989. ISBN 0-13-536657-7 The BSD family tree. 1997. http://www.de.freebsd.org/de/ftp/unix-stammbaum or local on a FreeBSD-current machine. The BSD Release Announcements collection. 1997. http://www.de.FreeBSD.ORG/de/ftp/releases/ Networked Computer Science Technical Reports Library. http://www.ncstrl.org/ Magazines and Journals The C/C++ Users Journal. R&D Publications Inc. ISSN 1075-2838 Sys Admin — The Journal for UNIX System Administrators Miller Freeman, Inc., ISSN 1061-2688 Resources on the Internet Contributed by &a.jkh;. The rapid pace of FreeBSD progress makes print media impractical as a means of following the latest developments. Electronic resources are the best, if not often the only, way stay informed of the latest advances. Since FreeBSD is a volunteer effort, the user community itself also generally serves as a technical support department of sorts, with electronic mail and USENET news being the most effective way of reaching that community. The most important points of contact with the FreeBSD user community are outlined below. If you are aware of other resources not mentioned here, please send them to the &a.doc;so that they may also be included. Mailing lists Though many of the FreeBSD development members read USENET, we cannot always guarantee that we will get to your questions in a timely fashion (or at all) if you post them only to one of the comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.* groups. By addressing your questions to the appropriate mailing list you will reach both us and a concentrated FreeBSD audience, invariably assuring a better (or at least faster) response. The charters for the various lists are given at the bottom of this document. Please read the charter before joining or sending mail to any list. Most of our list subscribers now receive many hundreds of FreeBSD related messages every day, and by setting down charters and rules for proper use we are striving to keep the signal-to-noise ratio of the lists high. To do less would see the mailing lists ultimately fail as an effective communications medium for the project. Archives are kept for all of the mailing lists and can be searched using the FreeBSD World Wide Web server. The keyword searchable archive offers an excellent way of finding answers to frequently asked questions and should be consulted before posting a question. List summary General lists: The following are general lists which anyone is free to join: List Purpose freebsd-announce Important events and project milestones freebsd-bugs Bug reports freebsd-chat Non-technical items related to the FreeBSD community freebsd-current Discussion concerning the use of FreeBSD-current freebsd-stable Discussion concerning the use of FreeBSD-stable freebsd-isp Issues for Internet Service Providers using FreeBSD freebsd-jobs FreeBSD employment and consulting opportunities freebsd-questions User questions Technical lists: The following lists are for technical discussion. You should read the charter for each list carefully before joining or sending mail to one as there are firm guidelines for their use and content. List Purpose freebsd-afs Porting AFS to FreeBSD freebsd-alpha Porting FreeBSD to the Alpha freebsd-doc The FreeBSD Documentation project freebsd-emulation Emulation of other systems such as Linux/DOS/Windows freebsd-fs Filesystems freebsd-hackers General technical discussion freebsd-hardware General discussion of hardware for running FreeBSD freebsd-isdn ISDN developers freebsd-java Java developers and people porting JDKs to FreeBSD freebsd-mobile Discussions about mobile computing freebsd-multimedia Multimedia discussion freebsd-platforms Concerning ports to non-Intel architecture platforms freebsd-ports Discussion of the ports collection freebsd-scsi The SCSI subsystem freebsd-security Security issues freebsd-smp Design discussions for [A]Symmetric MultiProcessing freebsd-sparc Porting FreeBSD to Sparc systems Limited lists: The following lists require approval from core@FreeBSD.ORG to join, though anyone is free to send messages to them which fall within the scope of their charters. It is also a good idea establish a presence in the technical lists before asking to join one of these limited lists. List Purpose freebsd-admin Administrative issues freebsd-arch Architecture and design discussions freebsd-core FreeBSD core team freebsd-hubs People running mirror sites (infrastructural support) freebsd-install Installation development freebsd-security-notifications Security notifications freebsd-user-groups User group coordination CVS lists: The following lists are for people interested in seeing the log messages for changes to various areas of the source tree. They are Read-Only lists and should not have mail sent to them. List Source area Area Description (source for) cvs-CVSROOT /usr/src/[A-Z]* Top level /usr/src file changes cvs-all /usr/src All changes to the tree (superset) cvs-bin /usr/src/bin System binaries cvs-etc /usr/src/etc System files cvs-games /usr/src/games Games cvs-gnu /usr/src/gnu GPL'd utilities cvs-include /usr/src/include Include files cvs-kerberosIV /usr/src/kerberosIV Kerberos encryption code cvs-lib /usr/src/lib System libraries cvs-libexec /usr/src/libexec System binaries cvs-ports /usr/ports Ported software cvs-sbin /usr/src/sbin System binaries cvs-share /usr/src/share System shared files cvs-sys /usr/src/sys Kernel cvs-usrbin /usr/src/usr.bin Use binaries cvs-usrsbin /usr/src/usr.sbin System binaries How to subscribe All mailing lists live on FreeBSD.ORG, so to post to a given list you simply mail to listname@FreeBSD.ORG. It will then be redistributed to mailing list members world-wide. To subscribe to a list, send mail to &a.majordomo; and include subscribe <listname> [<optional address>] in the body of your message. For example, to subscribe yourself to freebsd-announce, you'd do: &prompt.user; mail majordomo@FreeBSD.ORG subscribe freebsd-announce ^D If you want to subscribe yourself under a different name, or submit a subscription request for a local mailing list (this is more efficient if you have several interested parties at one site, and highly appreciated by us!), you would do something like: &prompt.user; mail majordomo@FreeBSD.ORG subscribe freebsd-announce local-announce@somesite.com ^D Finally, it is also possible to unsubscribe yourself from a list, get a list of other list members or see the list of mailing lists again by sending other types of control messages to majordomo. For a complete list of available commands, do this: &prompt.user; mail majordomo@FreeBSD.ORG help ^D Again, we would like to request that you keep discussion in the technical mailing lists on a technical track. If you are only interested in the high points then it is suggested that you join freebsd-announce, which is intended only for infrequent traffic. List charters AllFreeBSD mailing lists have certain basic rules which must be adhered to by anyone using them. Failure to comply with these guidelines will result in two (2) written warnings from the FreeBSD Postmaster postmaster@freebsd.org, after which, on a third offense, the poster will removed from all FreeBSD mailing lists and filtered from further posting to them. We regret that such rules and measures are necessary at all, but today's Internet is a pretty harsh environment, it would seem, and many fail to appreciate just how fragile some of its mechanisms are. Rules of the road: The topic of any posting should adhere to the basic charter of the list it is posted to, e.g. if the list is about technical issues then your posting should contain technical discussion. Ongoing irrelevant chatter or flaming only detracts from the value of the mailing list for everyone on it and will not be tolerated. For free-form discussion on no particular topic, the freebsd-chat freebsd-chat@freebsd.org mailing list is freely available and should be used instead. No posting should be made to more than 2 mailing lists, and only to 2 when a clear and obvious need to post to both lists exists. For most lists, there is already a great deal of subscriber overlap and except for the most esoteric mixes (say "-stable & -scsi"), there really is no reason to post to more than one list at a time. If a message is sent to you in such a way that multiple mailing lists appear on the Cc line then the cc line should also be trimmed before sending it out again. You are still responsible for your own cross-postings, no matter who the originator might have been. Personal attacks and profanity (in the context of an argument) are not allowed, and that includes users and developers alike. Gross breaches of netiquette, like excerpting or reposting private mail when permission to do so was not and would not be forthcoming, are frowned upon but not specifically enforced. However, there are also very few cases where such content would fit within the charter of a list and it would therefore probably rate a warning (or ban) on that basis alone. Advertising of non-FreeBSD related products or services is strictly prohibited and will result in an immediate ban if it is clear that the offender is advertising by spam. Individual list charters: FREEBSD-AFS Andrew File System This list is for discussion on porting and using AFS from CMU/Transarc FREEBSD-ADMIN Administrative issues This list is purely for discussion of freebsd.org related issues and to report problems or abuse of project resources. It is a closed list, though anyone may report a problem (with our systems!) to it. FREEBSD-ANNOUNCE Important events / milestones This is the mailing list for people interested only in occasional announcements of significant freebsd events. This includes announcements about snapshots and other releases. It contains announcements of new FreeBSD capabilities. It may contain calls for volunteers etc. This is a low volume, strictly moderated mailing list. FREEBSD-ARCH Architecture and design discussions This is the mailing list for people discussing FreeBSD architectural issues. It is a closed list, and not for general subscription. FREEBSD-BUGS Bug reports This is the mailing list for reporting bugs in FreeBSD Whenever possible, bugs should be submitted using the send-pr1 command or the WEB interface to it. FREEBSD-CHAT Non technical items related to the FreeBSD community This list contains the overflow from the other lists about non-technical, social information. It includes discussion about whether Jordan looks like a toon ferret or not, whether or not to type in capitals, who is drinking too much coffee, where the best beer is brewed, who is brewing beer in their basement, and so on. Occasional announcements of important events (such as upcoming parties, weddings, births, new jobs, etc) can be made to the technical lists, but the follow ups should be directed to this -chat list. FREEBSD-CORE FreeBSD core team This is an internal mailing list for use by the core members. Messages can be sent to it when a serious FreeBSD-related matter requires arbitration or high-level scrutiny. FREEBSD-CURRENT Discussions about the use of FreeBSD-current This is the mailing list for users of freebsd-current. It includes warnings about new features coming out in -current that will affect the users, and instructions on steps that must be taken to remain -current. Anyone running current must subscribe to this list. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-CURRENT-DIGEST Discussions about the use of FreeBSD-current This is the digest version of the freebsd-current mailing list. The digest consists of all messages sent to freebsd-current bundled together and mailed out as a single message. The average digest size is about 40kB. This list is Read-Only and should not be posted to. FREEBSD-STABLE Discussions about the use of FreeBSD-stable This is the mailing list for users of freebsd-stable. It includes warnings about new features coming out in -stable that will affect the users, and instructions on steps that must be taken to remain -stable. Anyone running stable should subscribe to this list. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-DOC Documentation project This mailing list belongs to the FreeBSD Doc Project and is for the discussion of documentation related issues and projects. FREEBSD-FS Filesystems Discussions concerning FreeBSD filesystems. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-ISDN ISDN Communications This is the mailing list for people discussing the development of ISDN support for FreeBSD. FREEBSD-JAVA Java Development This is the mailing list for people discussing the development of significant Java applications for FreeBSD and the porting and maintenance of JDKs. FREEBSD-HACKERS Technical discussions This is a forum for technical discussions related to FreeBSD. This is the primary technical mailing list. It is for individuals actively working on FreeBSD, to bring up problems or discuss alternative solutions. Individuals interested in following the technical discussion are also welcome. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-HACKERS-DIGEST Technical discussions This is the digest version of the freebsd-hackers mailing list. The digest consists of all messages sent to freebsd-hackers bundled together and mailed out as a single message. The average digest size is about 40kB. This list is Read-Only and should not be posted to. FREEBSD-HARDWARE General discussion of FreeBSD hardware General discussion about the types of hardware that FreeBSD runs on, various problems and suggestions concerning what to buy or avoid. FREEBSD-INSTALL Installation discussion This mailing list is for discussing FreeBSD installation development for the future releases and is closed. FREEBSD-ISP Issues for Internet Service Providers This mailing list is for discussing topics relevant to Internet Service Providers (ISPs) using FreeBSD. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-MULTIMEDIA Multimedia discussions This is a forum about multimedia applications using FreeBSD. Discussion center around multimedia applications, their installation, their development and their support within FreeBSD This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-PLATFORMS Porting to Non-Intel platforms Cross-platform freebsd issues, general discussion and proposals for non-Intel FreeBSD ports. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-PORTS Discussion of ports Discussions concerning FreeBSD's ports collection (/usr/ports), proposed ports, modifications to ports collection infrastructure and general coordination efforts. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-QUESTIONS User questions This is the mailing list for questions about FreeBSD. You should not send how to questions to the technical lists unless you consider the question to be pretty technical. FREEBSD-QUESTIONS-DIGEST User questions This is the digest version of the freebsd-questions mailing list. The digest consists of all messages sent to freebsd-questions bundled together and mailed out as a single message. The average digest size is about 40kB. FREEBSD-SCSI SCSI subsystem This is the mailing list for people working on the scsi subsystem for FreeBSD. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-SECURITY Security issues FreeBSD computer security issues (DES, Kerberos, known security holes and fixes, etc). This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-SECURITY-NOTIFICATIONS Security Notifications Notifications of FreeBSD security problems and fixes. This is not a discussion list. The discussion list is FreeBSD-security. FREEBSD-USER-GROUPS User Group Coordination List This is the mailing list for the coordinators from each of the local area Users Groups to discuss matters with each other and a designated individual from the Core Team. This mail list should be limited to meeting synopsis and coordination of projects that span User Groups. It is a closed list. Usenet newsgroups In addition to two FreeBSD specific newsgroups, there are many others in which FreeBSD is discussed or are otherwise relevant to FreeBSD users. Keyword searchable archives are available for some of these newsgroups from courtesy of Warren Toomey wkt@cs.adfa.oz.au. BSD specific newsgroups comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.announce comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.misc Other Unix newsgroups of interest comp.unix comp.unix.questions comp.unix.admin comp.unix.programmer comp.unix.shell comp.unix.user-friendly comp.security.unix comp.sources.unix comp.unix.advocacy comp.unix.misc comp.os.386bsd.announc comp.os.386bsd.app comp.os.386bsd.bugs comp.os.386bsd.development comp.os.386bsd.misc comp.os.386bsd.questions comp.bugs.4bsd comp.bugs.4bsd.ucb-fixes comp.unix.bsd X Window System comp.windows.x.i386unix comp.windows.x comp.windows.x.apps comp.windows.x.announce comp.windows.x.intrinsics comp.windows.x.motif comp.windows.x.pex comp.emulators.ms-windows.wine World Wide Web servers http://www.FreeBSD.ORG/ — Central Server. http://www.au.freebsd.org/FreeBSD/ — Australia. http://www.br.freebsd.org/ — Brazil. http://www.ca.freebsd.org/ — Canada. http://sunsite.mff.cuni.cz/www.freebsd.org/ — Czech Republic. http://sunsite.auc.dk/www.freebsd.org/ — Denmark. http://www.ee.freebsd.org/ — Estonia. http://www.fi.freebsd.org/ — Finland. http://www.de.freebsd.org/ — Germany. http://www.ie.freebsd.org/ — Ireland. http://www.jp.freebsd.org/ — Japan. http://www.kr.freebsd.org/ — Korea. http://www.nl.freebsd.org/ — Netherlands. http://www.pt.freebsd.org/ — Portugal. http://www.se.freebsd.org/www.freebsd.org/ — Sweden. http://www.tw.freebsd.org/freebsd.html — Taiwan. http://www2.ua.freebsd.org/ — Ukraine. FreeBSD Project Staff The FreeBSD Project is managed and operated by the following groups of people: The FreeBSD Core Team The FreeBSD core team constitutes the project's Board of Directors, responsible for deciding the project's overall goals and direction as well as managing of the FreeBSD project landscape. (in alphabetical order by last name): &a.asami; &a.jmb; &a.ache; &a.dyson; &a.bde; &a.gibbs; &a.davidg; &a.jkh; &a.phk; &a.rich; &a.gpalmer; &a.jdp; &a.guido; &a.sos; &a.peter; &a.wollman; &a.joerg; The FreeBSD Developers These are the people who have commit privileges and do the engineering work on the FreeBSD source tree. All core team members and most FreeBSD Documentation project personnel are also developers. &a.mbarkah; &a.stb; &a.jb; &a.torstenb; &a.danny; &a.charnier; &a.kjc; &a.gclarkii; &a.cracauer; &a.adam; &a.dufault; &a.uhclem; &a.tegge; &a.eivind; &a.julian; &a.rse; &a.se; &a.sef; &a.fenner; &a.jfieber; &a.jfitz; &a.lars; &a.scrappy; &a.tg; &a.brandon; &a.graichen; &a.jgreco; &a.rgrimes; &a.jmg; &a.hanai; &a.ahasty; &a.jhay; &a.helbig; &a.erich; &a.hsu; &a.itojun; &a.ugen; &a.gj; &a.nsj; &a.ljo; &a.kato; &a.andreas; &a.imp; &a.smace; &a.mckay; &a.jlemon; &a.tedm; &a.amurai; &a.markm; &a.max; &a.alex; &a.davidn; &a.obrien; &a.fsmp; &a.smpatel; &a.wpaul; &a.jmacd; &a.steve; &a.mpp; &a.dfr; &a.jraynard; &a.darrenr; &a.csgr; &a.martin; &a.paul; &a.roberto; &a.chuckr; &a.dima; &a.wosch; &a.ats; &a.jseger; &a.vanilla; &a.msmith; &a.brian; &a.stark; &a.karl; &a.cwt; &a.pst; &a.hoek; &a.swallace; &a.nate; &a.yokota; &a.jmz; &a.hosokawa; The FreeBSD Documentation Project The FreeBSD Documentation Project is responsible for a number of different services, each service being run by an individual and his deputies (if any): Documentation Project Manager &a.jfieber; Webmaster &a.mbarkah; Deputy: &a.paul; Handbook & FAQ Editor &a.faq; Build Engineer &a.paul; Deputy: &a.dave; Mirror Manager &a.ulf; Deputy: &a.john; News Editor &a.nsj; Deputy: &a.john; Gallery and Commercial Editor &a.nsj; Deputy: &a.cawimm; Style Police & Art Director &a.dave; Deputy: &a.opsys; Database Engineer &a.mayo; Deputy: &a.cracauer; CGI Engineer &a.cracauer; Deputy: &a.stb; Bottle Washing &a.nsj; Drying plates: &a.nik; Who Is Responsible for What Principal Architect &a.davidg; Documentation Project Manager &a.jfieber; Internationalization &a.ache; Networking &a.wollman; Postmaster &a.jmb; Release Coordinator &a.jkh; Public Relations & Corporate Liaison &a.jkh; Security Officer &a.guido; Source Repository Managers Principal: &a.peter; Assistant: &a.jdp; International (Crypto): &a.markm; Ports Manager &a.asami; XFree86 Project, Inc. Liaison &a.rich; Usenet Support &a.joerg; GNATS Administrator &a.steve; PGP keys In case you need to verify a signature or send encrypted email to one of the officers or core team members a number of keys are provided here for your convenience. Officers FreeBSD Security Officer <email>security-officer@freebsd.org</email> FreeBSD Security Officer <security-officer@freebsd.org> Fingerprint = 41 08 4E BB DB 41 60 71 F9 E5 0E 98 73 AF 3F 11 -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.3i mQCNAzF7MY4AAAEEAK7qBgPuBejER5HQbQlsOldk3ZVWXlRj54raz3IbuAUrDrQL h3g57T9QY++f3Mot2LAf5lDJbsMfWrtwPrPwCCFRYQd6XH778a+l4ju5axyjrt/L Ciw9RrOC+WaPv3lIdLuqYge2QRC1LvKACIPNbIcgbnLeRGLovFUuHi5z0oilAAUR tDdGcmVlQlNEIFNlY3VyaXR5IE9mZmljZXIgPHNlY3VyaXR5LW9mZmljZXJAZnJl ZWJzZC5vcmc+iQCVAwUQMX6yrOJgpPLZnQjrAQHyowQA1Nv2AY8vJIrdp2ttV6RU tZBYnI7gTO3sFC2bhIHsCvfVU3JphfqWQ7AnTXcD2yPjGcchUfc/EcL1tSlqW4y7 PMP4GHZp9vHog1NAsgLC9Y1P/1cOeuhZ0pDpZZ5zxTo6TQcCBjQA6KhiBFP4TJql 3olFfPBh3B/Tu3dqmEbSWpuJAJUDBRAxez3C9RVb+45ULV0BAak8A/9JIG/jRJaz QbKom6wMw852C/Z0qBLJy7KdN30099zMjQYeC9PnlkZ0USjQ4TSpC8UerYv6IfhV nNY6gyF2Hx4CbEFlopnfA1c4yxtXKti1kSN6wBy/ki3SmqtfDhPQ4Q31p63cSe5A 3aoHcjvWuqPLpW4ba2uHVKGP3g7SSt6AOYkAlQMFEDF8mz0ff6kIA1j8vQEBmZcD /REaUPDRx6qr1XRQlMs6pfgNKEwnKmcUzQLCvKBnYYGmD5ydPLxCPSFnPcPthaUb 5zVgMTjfjS2fkEiRrua4duGRgqN4xY7VRAsIQeMSITBOZeBZZf2oa9Ntidr5PumS 9uQ9bvdfWMpsemk2MaRG9BSoy5Wvy8VxROYYUwpT8Cf2iQCVAwUQMXsyqWtaZ42B sqd5AQHKjAQAvolI30Nyu3IyTfNeCb/DvOe9tlOn/o+VUDNJiE/PuBe1s2Y94a/P BfcohpKC2kza3NiW6lLTp00OWQsuu0QAPc02vYOyseZWy4y3Phnw60pWzLcFdemT 0GiYS5Xm1o9nAhPFciybn9j1q8UadIlIq0wbqWgdInBT8YI/l4f5sf6JAJUDBRAx ezKXVS4eLnPSiKUBAc5OBACIXTlKqQC3B53qt7bNMV46m81fuw1PhKaJEI033mCD ovzyEFFQeOyRXeu25Jg9Bq0Sn37ynISucHSmt2tUD5W0+p1MUGyTqnfqejMUWBzO v4Xhp6a8RtDdUMBOTtro16iulGiRrCKxzVgEl4i+9Z0ZiE6BWlg5AetoF5n3mGk1 lw== =ipyA -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- &a.imp; Warner Losh <imp@village.org> aka <imp@freebsd.org> Fingerprint = D4 31 FD B9 F7 90 17 E8 37 C5 E7 7F CF A6 C1 B9 -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.2 mQCNAzDzTiAAAAEEAK8D7KWEbVFUrmlqhUEnAvphNIqHEbqqT8s+c5f5c2uHtlcH V4mV2TlUaDSVBN4+/D70oHmZc4IgiQwMPCWRrSezg9z/MaKlWhaslc8YT6Xc1q+o EP/fAdKUrq49H0QQbkQk6Ks5wKW6v9AOvdmsS6ZJEcet6d9G4dxynu/2qPVhAAUR tCBNLiBXYXJuZXIgTG9zaCA8aW1wQHZpbGxhZ2Uub3JnPokAlQMFEDM/SK1VLh4u c9KIpQEBFPsD/1n0YuuUPvD4CismZ9bx9M84y5sxLolgFEfP9Ux196ZSeaPpkA0g C9YX/IyIy5VHh3372SDWN5iVSDYPwtCmZziwIV2YxzPtZw0nUu82P/Fn8ynlCSWB 5povLZmgrWijTJdnUWI0ApVBUTQoiW5MyrNN51H3HLWXGoXMgQFZXKWYiQCVAwUQ MzmhkfUVW/uOVC1dAQG3+AP/T1HL/5EYF0ij0yQmNTzt1cLt0b1e3N3zN/wPFFWs BfrQ+nsv1zw7cEgxLtktk73wBGM9jUIdJu8phgLtl5a0m9UjBq5oxrJaNJr6UTxN a+sFkapTLT1g84UFUO/+8qRB12v+hZr2WeXMYjHAFUT18mp3xwjW9DUV+2fW1Wag YDKJAJUDBRAzOYK1s1pi61mfMj0BARBbA/930CHswOF0HIr+4YYUs1ejDnZ2J3zn icTZhl9uAfEQq++Xor1x476j67Z9fESxyHltUxCmwxsJ1uOJRwzjyEoMlyFrIN4C dE0C8g8BF+sRTt7VLURLERvlBvFrVZueXSnXvmMoWFnqpSpt3EmN6TNaLe8Cm87a k6EvQy0dpnkPKokAlQMFEDD9Lorccp7v9qj1YQEBrRUD/3N4cCMWjzsIFp2Vh9y+ RzUrblyF84tJyA7Rr1p+A7dxf7je3Zx5QMEXosWL1WGnS5vC9YH2WZwv6sCU61gU rSy9z8KHlBEHh+Z6fdRMrjd9byPf+n3cktT0NhS23oXB1ZhNZcB2KKhVPlNctMqO 3gTYx+Nlo6xqjR+J2NnBYU8p =7fQV -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Core Team members &a.asami; Satoshi Asami <asami@cs.berkeley.edu> aka <asami@FreeBSD.ORG> Fingerprint = EB 3C 68 9E FB 6C EB 3F DB 2E 0F 10 8F CE 79 CA -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.2 mQCNAzPVyoQAAAEEAL7W+kipxB171Z4SVyyL9skaA7hG3eRsSOWk7lfvfUBLtPog f3OKwrApoc/jwLf4+Qpdzv5DLEt/6Hd/clskhJ+q1gMNHyZ5ABmUxrTRRNvJMTrb 3fPU3oZj7sL/MyiFaT1zF8EaMP/iS2ZtcFsbYOqGeA8E/58uk4NA0SoeCNiJAAUR tCVTYXRvc2hpIEFzYW1pIDxhc2FtaUBjcy5iZXJrZWxleS5lZHU+iQCVAwUQM/AT +EqGN2HYnOMZAQF11QP/eSXb2FuTb1yX5yoo1Im8YnIk1SEgCGbyEbOMMBznVNDy 5g2TAD0ofLxPxy5Vodjg8rf+lfMVtO5amUH6aNcORXRncE83T10JmeM6JEp0T6jw zOHKz8jRzygYLBayGsNIJ4BGxa4LeaGxJpO1ZEvRlNkPH/YEXK5oQmq9/DlrtYOJ AEUDBRAz42JT8ng6GBbVvu0BAU8nAYCsJ8PiJpRUGlrz6rxjX8hqM1v3vqFHLcG+ G52nVMBSy+RZBgzsYIPwI5EZtWAKb22JAJUDBRAz4QBWdbtuOHaj97EBAaQPA/46 +NLUp+Wubl90JoonoXocwAg88tvAUVSzsxPXj0lvypAiSI2AJKsmn+5PuQ+/IoQy lywRsxiQ5GD7C72SZ1yw2WI9DWFeAi+qa4b8n9fcLYrnHpyCY+zxEpu4pam8FJ7H JocEUZz5HRoKKOLHErzXDiuTkkm72b1glmCqAQvnB4kAlQMFEDPZ3gyDQNEqHgjY iQEBFfUEALu2C0uo+1Z7C5+xshWRYY5xNCzK20O6bANVJ+CO2fih96KhwsMof3lw fDso5HJSwgFd8WT/sR+Wwzz6BAE5UtgsQq5GcsdYQuGI1yIlCYUpDp5sgswNm+OA bX5a+r4F/ZJqrqT1J56Mer0VVsNfe5nIRsjd/rnFAFVfjcQtaQmjiQCVAwUQM9uV mcdm8Q+/vPRJAQELHgP9GqNiMpLQlZig17fDnCJ73P0e5t/hRLFehZDlmEI2TK7j Yeqbw078nZgyyuljZ7YsbstRIsWVCxobX5eH1kX+hIxuUqCAkCsWUY4abG89kHJr XGQn6X1CX7xbZ+b6b9jLK+bJKFcLSfyqR3M2eCyscSiZYkWKQ5l3FYvbUzkeb6K0 IVNhdG9zaGkgQXNhbWkgPGFzYW1pQEZyZWVCU0QuT1JHPg== =39SC -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- &a.jmb; Jonathan M. Bresler <jmb@FreeBSD.org> Key fingerprint = 31 57 41 56 06 C1 40 13 C5 1C E3 E5 DC 62 0E FB -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.2 mQCNAzG2GToAAAEEANI6+4SJAAgBpl53XcfEr1M9wZyBqC0tzpie7Zm4vhv3hO8s o5BizSbcJheQimQiZAY4OnlrCpPxijMFSaihshs/VMAz1qbisUYAMqwGEO/T4QIB nWNo0Q/qOniLMxUrxS1RpeW5vbghErHBKUX9GVhxbiVfbwc4wAHbXdKX5jjdAAUR tCVKb25hdGhhbiBNLiBCcmVzbGVyIDxqbWJARnJlZUJTRC5PUkc+iQCVAwUQNA3x ffUVW/uOVC1dAQHGdAQAgsnYklBtVUdGuQwXB3bYp9omTD7CVD0aibVrz+lXiPDh aTVkOC1uhEwL59+R8VdpAnEDMobdZDA/ihCc+6/FW/eE0uyrWZzb5Ng9V1MfC6HI +sXpeXPy585Z56ewadV2yY9rvzcwmmUNHmAXT/5O0S2AWB0EJZ+cewTrokSTVVOJ AJUDBRA0C3EoVS4eLnPSiKUBASb+A/95g6w9DDPRGDlbsl4pN1BlSPKrmDQPRK1X C3bddDY2HNelSNhzp2FYD0WoN1re1vMJV0oaaJHwv7wjbe3+SYEX/IdmtfzI0MbZ Q/uPybPJOxi2ud6C6J+mEGJN9iBCnsaCz8CETuC9gR1mtxsxySUj9mk0fxKfdP6S 3QDrv6CQ1IkAlQMFEDKsi9CzWmLrWZ8yPQEBduUD/RhV4Qa89rYls9vtIFm6XBjZ 8mW37FYxeqIxg3ZrIyTMlghsOPV0f7zymCCWPRGKOLePRiGo0ZCEkDTYiM9tnwQI 09rmPWJb50yfTSZXjHx6+Hcm6O6BCmDFloo0Mxo6n9pvMH/TmmqHxCsAV+p8XEWy rMZvwVSynMxmJd17Y5HLtBNKb25hdGhhbiBNLiBCcmVzbGVyiQCVAwUQMbYtYQHb XdKX5jjdAQHEHwP/fEaQoTi7zKD1U/5kW2YPIBUyMTpLiO9QOr4stYjJvhHh4Ejw fGvMIhbFrPKtxSNH1s3m4jAXKXiQBDCz17IIzL4n8dlunxNGE5MHcsmpWzggyIg4 zbPqPOcg4gLFEWsEkr2o0akwzIGa3tbCvC+ITaX/rdlWV1jaQjTqSNyPZBM= =RV56 -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- &a.ache; Andrey A. Chernov <ache@FreeBSD.org> aka <ache@nagual.pp.ru> Key fingerprint = 33 03 9F 48 33 7B 4A 15 63 48 88 0A C4 97 FD 49 -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.3ia mQCNAiqUMGQAAAEEAPGhcD6A2Buey5LYz0sphDLpVgOZc/bb9UHAbaGKUAGXmafs Dcb2HnsuYGgX/zrQXuCi/wIGtXcZWB97APtKOhFsZnPinDR5n/dde/mw9FnuhwqD m+rKSL1HlN0z/Msa5y7g16760wHhSR6NoBSEG5wQAHIMMq7Q0uJgpPLZnQjrAAUT tCVBbmRyZXkgQS4gQ2hlcm5vdiA8YWNoZUBuYWd1YWwucHAucnU+iQCVAwUQM2Ez u+JgpPLZnQjrAQEyugP8DPnS8ixJ5OeuYgPFQf5sy6l+LrB6hyaS+lgsUPahWjNY cnaDmfda/q/BV5d4+y5rlQe/pjnYG7/yQuAR3jhlXz8XDrqlBOnW9AtYjDt5rMfJ aGFTGXAPGZ6k6zQZE0/YurT8ia3qjvuZm3Fw4NJrHRx7ETHRvVJDvxA6Ggsvmr20 JEFuZHJleSBBLiBDaGVybm92IDxhY2hlQEZyZWVCU0Qub3JnPokAlQMFEDR5uVbi YKTy2Z0I6wEBLgED/2mn+hw4/3peLx0Sb9LNx//NfCCkVefSf2G9Qwhx6dvwbX7h mFca97h7BQN4GubU1Z5Ffs6TeamSBrotBYGmOCwvJ6S9WigF9YHQIQ3B4LEjskAt pcjU583y42zM11kkvEuQU2Gde61daIylJyOxsgpjSWpkxq50fgY2kLMfgl/ftCZB bmRyZXkgQS4gQ2hlcm5vdiA8YWNoZUBuaWV0enNjaGUubmV0PokAlQMFEDR5svDi YKTy2Z0I6wEBOTQD/0OTCAXIjuak363mjERvzSkVsNtIH9hA1l0w6Z95+iH0fHrW xXKT0vBZE0y0Em+S3cotLL0bMmVE3F3D3GyxhBVmgzjyx0NYNoiQjYdi+6g/PV30 Cn4vOO6hBBpSyI6vY6qGNqcsawuRtHNvK/53MpOfKwSlICEBYQimcZhkci+EtCJB bmRyZXkgQS4gQ2hlcm5vdiA8YWNoZUBuYWd1YWwucnU+iQCVAwUQMcm5HeJgpPLZ nQjrAQHwvQP9GdmAf1gdcuayHEgNkc11macPH11cwWjYjzA2YoecFMGV7iqKK8QY rr1MjbGXf8DAG8Ubfm0QbI8Lj8iG3NgqIru0c72UuHGSn/APfGGG0AtPX5UK/k7B gI0Ca2po6NA5nrSp8tDsdEz/4gyea84RXl2prtTf5Jj07hflbRstGXK0MkFuZHJl eSBBLiBDaGVybm92LCBCbGFjayBNYWdlIDxhY2hlQGFzdHJhbC5tc2suc3U+iQCV AwUQMCsAo5/rGryoL8h3AQHq1QQAidyNFqA9hvrmMcjpY7csJVFlGvj574Wj4GPa o3pZeuQaMBmsWqaXLYnWU/Aldb6kTz6+nRcQX50zFH0THSPfApwEW7yybSTI5apJ mWT3qhKN2vmLNg2yNzhqLTzHLD1lH3i1pfQq8WevrNfjLUco5S/VuekTma/osnzC Cw7fQzCJAJUDBRAwKvwoa1pnjYGyp3kBARihBACoXr3qfG65hFCyKJISmjOvaoGr anxUIkeDS0yQdTHzhQ+dwB1OhhK15E0Nwr0MKajLMm90n6+Zdb5y/FIjpPriu8dI rlHrWZlewa88eEDM+Q/NxT1iYg+HaKDAE171jmLpSpCL0MiJtO0i36L3ekVD7Hv8 vffOZHPSHirIzJOZTYkAlQMFEDAau6zFLUdtDb+QbQEBQX8D/AxwkYeFaYxZYMFO DHIvSk23hAsjCmUA2Uil1FeWAusb+o8xRfPDc7TnosrIifJqbF5+fcHCG5VSTGlh Bhd18YWUeabf/h9O2BsQX55yWRuB2x3diJ1xI/VVdG+rxlMCmE4ZR1Tl9x+Mtun9 KqKVpB39VlkCBYQ3hlgNt/TJUY4riQCVAwUQMBHMmyJRltlmbQBRAQFQkwP/YC3a hs3ZMMoriOlt3ZxGNUUPTF7rIER3j+c7mqGG46dEnDB5sUrkzacpoLX5sj1tGR3b vz9a4vmk1Av3KFNNvrZZ3/BZFGpq3mCTiAC9zsyNYQ8L0AfGIUO5goCIjqwOTNQI AOpNsJ5S+nMAkQB4YmmNlI6GTb3D18zfhPZ6uciJAJUCBRAwD0sl4uW74fteFRkB AWsAA/9NYqBRBKbmltQDpyK4+jBAYjkXBJmARFXKJYTlnTgOHMpZqoVyW96xnaa5 MzxEiu7ZWm5oL10QDIp1krkBP2KcmvfSMMHb5aGCCQc2/P8NlfXAuHtNGzYiI0UA Iwi8ih/S1liVfvnqF9uV3d3koE7VsQ9OA4Qo0ZL2ggW+/gEaYIkAlQMFEDAOz6qx /IyHe3rl4QEBIvYD/jIr8Xqo/2I5gncghSeFR01n0vELFIvaF4cHofGzyzBpYsfA +6pgFI1IM+LUF3kbUkAY/2uSf9U5ECcaMCTWCwVgJVO+oG075SHEM4buhrzutZiM 1dTyTaepaPpTyRMUUx9ZMMYJs7sbqLId1eDwrJxUPhrBNvf/w2W2sYHSY8cdiQCV AwUQMAzqgHcdkq6JcsfBAQGTxwQAtgeLFi2rhSOdllpDXUwz+SS6bEjFTWgRsWFM y9QnOcqryw7LyuFmWein4jasjY033JsODfWQPiPVNA3UEnXVg9+n8AvNMPO8JkRv Cn1eNg0VaJy9J368uArio93agd2Yf/R5r+QEuPjIssVk8hdcy/luEhSiXWf6bLMV HEA0J+OJAJUDBRAwDUi+4mCk8tmdCOsBAatBBACHB+qtW880seRCDZLjl/bT1b14 5po60U7u6a3PEBkY0NA72tWDQuRPF/Cn/0+VdFNxQUsgkrbwaJWOoi0KQsvlOm3R rsxKbn9uvEKLxExyKH3pxp76kvz/lEWwEeKvBK+84Pb1lzpG3W7u2XDfi3VQPTi3 5SZMAHc6C0Ct/mjNlYkAlQMFEDAMrPD7wj+NsTMUOQEBJckD/ik4WsZzm2qOx9Fw erGq7Zwchc+Jq1YeN5PxpzqSf4AG7+7dFIn+oe6X2FcIzgbYY+IfmgJIHEVjDHH5 +uAXyb6l4iKc89eQawO3t88pfHLJWbTzmnvgz2cMrxt94HRvgkHfvcpGEgbyldq6 EB33OunazFcfZFRIcXk1sfyLDvYE =1ahV -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- &a.jkh; Jordan K. Hubbard <jkh@FreeBSD.org> Fingerprint = 3C F2 27 7E 4A 6C 09 0A 4B C9 47 CD 4F 4D 0B 20 -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.2i mQCNAzFjX0IAAAEEAML+nm9/kDNPp43ZUZGjYkm2QLtoC1Wxr8JulZXqk7qmhYcQ jvX+fyoriJ6/7ZlnLe2oG5j9tZOnRLPvMaz0g9CpW6Dz3nkXrNPkmOFV9B8D94Mk tyFeRJFqnkCuqBj6D+H8FtBwEeeTecSh2tJ0bZZTXnAMhxeOdvUVW/uOVC1dAAUR tCNKb3JkYW4gSy4gSHViYmFyZCA8amtoQEZyZWVCU0Qub3JnPokAlQMFEDF75D1r WmeNgbKneQEBXtcD+gJIv8JzZRKlDZyTCQanK8iRgE+zMhxptI0kDObaGxT1BrpY 4/EPyiUN10G4k2Jb+DOc8Lg2xDQ3xmvgipFf9NMNV/ThaEuZ3wA31I6tW/arQEqB Tp8u6T3v20m62t7Afo9HaoE6MBpHQUk2TilxgAd5P57sporL3pgW9YojIO9ziQCV AwUQMXyV2h9/qQgDWPy9AQEMfgP/RmbSg2WlesATUQ4WuanjcdREduKPyfQatrXD 2xt+jg9X78dTyiNN1YvLqvT6msfs04MKSC0hA2mou6ozw8Xak+1QmP0fBOZKp9pP 8szO188Do9ByzJPvHF1eXT7jFMOXVq8ZIl9iwjxcIDLzlxOz49DC7LO6AT+LKQk7 UGeP+lqJAJUDBRAxe+UG9RVb+45ULV0BAXZ9A/9F9gLpGukVNkeOjaqxQdJGTS+a xh/Abk0c/nKhAEyxpAl5JyQ3ifYk6BHhPvlTi9LrZoXGA8sk/eU4eRTZVzvGEC4G +xsavlE/xzku8855QTLPpkCunUpQeu1wzaIrUUE6Zjh05imFbJYyQOBgTFpuqWsC rsUpl+2mr8IGIxG5rA== =LW9i -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- &a.phk; Poul-Henning Kamp <phk@FreeBSD.org> Fingerprint = A3 F3 88 28 2F 9B 99 A2 49 F4 E2 FA 5A 78 8B 3E -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.3ia mQCNAzAdpMIAAAEEALHDgrFUwhZtb7PbXg3upELoDVEUPFRwnmpJH1rRqyROUGcI ooVe7u+FQlIs5OsXK8ECs/5Wpe2UrZSzHvjwBYOND5H42YtI5UULZLRCo5bFfTVA K9Rpo5icfTsYihrzU2nmnycwFMk+jYXyT/ZDYWDP/BM9iLjj0x9/qQgDWPy9AAUR tCNQb3VsLUhlbm5pbmcgS2FtcCA8cGhrQEZyZWVCU0Qub3JnPokAlQMFEDMGK9qz WmLrWZ8yPQEB4iED/18bQVhV2gUYFSxIUTaUtO2HVPi7GRpSzmXoTfS+FJyRR0ED zTqTHstoBe2PeWgTsOf9cUub5UKcJkRQp7VrJv4Kncyuq7pX69a+QMveCzuUwAur nDbt/emOL6NU8g9Uk50QuOuipb5rULQLRRoF5TkViy/VES83ERXdYQ9Ml3fWiQCV AwUQMX6NfWtaZ42Bsqd5AQEKsgP+L+uLz95dRdEmnZ+omrO+tYZM/0jHU7i8yC5q H0gguKOCljI4liR7NkqKONUJWYtfsTB81d9iSosBZRrTx6i/hB8l8kOB975n/f9S hftFwmjLYCNMFlDM4j0kySvMV20UZjAyv9BeE51VWlIZ5n/oeSuzul3Znow02tF/ zVnInJiJAJUDBRAxfJXn9RVb+45ULV0BAXJ8A/9K6NT6VLZZC5q3g7bBk5DWuzBS 3oK2Ebww6xzsD2R9edltoz1J3GPngK0CWpHh4kw5iTaRWoC2YJYRNG6icnGvlMAl 1/urqQHJVhxATINm8oljDKsj1RBJ6VKBzNbCJIHTVpX0AJoqUQX2Idi8goFr0fAm 7cD2CBb1JhoAdzEfO4kAlQMFEDFLHlwff6kIA1j8vQEBj5MD/1hA8hJdhpL7mvQj rTAIn6Ldr08Lr1lqTaKSBMdCL3suGlW0Sw/dIBgicPDhgxLahT3DVfGiIst32FSl xmWY7wine80X4TZkJ9Hiw3Mpqtjl92j6zHNq0ZZE+CceNubpEdYLDqokAIMPdWlo WPHZcPxCs5PKI5udseFYF2gQAjI2iQCVAwUQMTlDoO9huekR1Y7VAQGy+AP/Rzp+ UGtJavbSiPx5EnXOXxkA/+ulXQgQG9vdkWwewkvxDNOzHW3KkUWCGtPtIMENznbF j3QlYB+USIaf1ogvlD5EdXGPDfTINpE8CX2WXzajfgYFpYETDzduwjoWDZfEN9zZ fQqQS62VgAReOIz3k9BL708z/+WUO0++RLGCmImJAJUDBRAw5q8kAPLZCeu7G0EB AT3bBACwo+r9TgbiSyyU5cZpq5KgGT1c7eUHXjtxKmtrXD1nFNJ6j7x2DM2XGe6B YOfDWbFq4UkEAyAeXviuuUP4enQu1v2g7JGXeuI8bRM519pLdPzDq/DnbA4rNStn /SkH7awMfNSplcFuE6rc5ezVkw17eOHzDrYmwsFavL9gxZEycg== =Q45T -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- &a.rich; Rich Murphey <rich@FreeBSD.org> fingerprint = AF A0 60 C4 84 D6 0C 73 D1 EF C0 E9 9D 21 DB E4 -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.2 mQCNAy97V+MAAAEEALiNM3FCwm3qrCe81E20UOSlNclOWfZHNAyOyj1ahHeINvo1 FBF2Gd5Lbj0y8SLMno5yJ6P4F4r+x3jwHZrzAIwMs/lxDXRtB0VeVWnlj6a3Rezs wbfaTeSVyh5JohEcKdoYiMG5wjATOwK/NAwIPthB1RzRjnEeer3HI3ZYNEOpAAUR tCRSaWNoIE11cnBoZXkgPHJpY2hAbGFtcHJleS51dG1iLmVkdT6JAJUDBRAve15W vccjdlg0Q6kBAZTZBACcNd/LiVnMFURPrO4pVRn1sVQeokVX7izeWQ7siE31Iy7g Sb97WRLEYDi686osaGfsuKNA87Rm+q5F+jxeUV4w4szoqp60gGvCbD0KCB2hWraP /2s2qdVAxhfcoTin/Qp1ZWvXxFF7imGA/IjYIfB42VkaRYu6BwLEm3YAGfGcSw== =QoiM -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- &a.jdp; John D. Polstra <jdp@polstra.com> Fingerprint = 54 3A 90 59 6B A4 9D 61 BF 1D 03 09 35 8D F6 0D -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.2 mQCNAzMElMEAAAEEALizp6ZW9QifQgWoFmG3cXhzQ1+Gt+a4S1adC/TdHdBvw1M/ I6Ok7TC0dKF8blW3VRgeHo4F3XhGn+n9MqIdboh4HJC5Iiy63m98sVLJSwyGO4oM dkEGyyCLxqP6h/DU/tzNBdqFzetGtYvU4ftt3RO0a506cr2CHcdm8Q+/vPRJAAUR tCFKb2huIEQuIFBvbHN0cmEgPGpkcEBwb2xzdHJhLmNvbT6JAJUDBRAzBNBE9RVb +45ULV0BAWgiA/0WWO3+c3qlptPCHJ3DFm6gG/qNKsY94agL/mHOr0fxMP5l2qKX O6a1bWkvGoYq0EwoKGFfn0QeHiCl6jVi3CdBX+W7bObMcoi+foqZ6zluOWBC1Jdk WQ5/DeqQGYXqbYjqO8voCScTAPge3XlMwVpMZTv24u+nYxtLkE0ZcwtY9IkAlQMF EDMEt/DHZvEPv7z0SQEBXh8D/2egM5ckIRpGz9kcFTDClgdWWtlgwC1iI2p9gEhq aufy+FUJlZS4GSQLWB0BlrTmDC9HuyQ+KZqKFRbVZLyzkH7WFs4zDmwQryLV5wkN C4BRRBXZfWy8s4+zT2WQD1aPO+ZsgRauYLkJgTvXTPU2JCN62Nsd8R7bJS5tuHEm 7HGmiQCVAwUQMwSvHB9/qQgDWPy9AQFAhAQAgJ1AlbKITrEoJ0+pLIsov3eQ348m SVHEBGIkU3Xznjr8NzT9aYtq4TIzt8jplqP3QoV1ka1yYpZf0NjvfZ+ffYp/sIaU wPbEpgtmHnVWJAebMbNs/Ad1w8GDvxEt9IaCbMJGZnHmfnEqOBIxF7VBDPHHoJxM V31K/PIoYsHAy5w= =cHFa -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- &a.guido; Guido van Rooij <guido@gvr.win.tue.nl> Fingerprint = 16 79 09 F3 C0 E4 28 A7 32 62 FA F6 60 31 C0 ED -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.2 mQCNAzGeO84AAAEEAKKAY91Na//DXwlUusr9GVESSlVwVP6DyH1wcZXhfN1fyZHq SwhMCEdHYoojQds+VqD1iiZQvv1RLByBgj622PDAPN4+Z49HjGs7YbZsUNuQqPPU wRPpP6ty69x1hPKq1sQIB5MS4radpCM+4wbZbhxv7l4rP3RWUbNaYutZnzI9AAUR tCZHdWlkbyB2YW4gUm9vaWogPGd1aWRvQGd2ci53aW4udHVlLm5sPokAlQMFEDMG Hcgff6kIA1j8vQEBbYgD/jm9xHuUuY+iXDkOzpCXBYACYEZDV913MjtyBAmaVqYo Rh5HFimkGXe+rCo78Aau0hc57fFMTsJqnuWEqVt3GRq28hSK1FOZ7ni9/XibHcmN rt2yugl3hYpClijo4nrDL1NxibbamkGW/vFGcljS0jqXz6NDVbGx5Oo7HBByxByz iQCVAwUQMhmtVjt/x7zOdmsfAQFuVQQApsVUTigT5YWjQA9Nd5Z0+a/oVtZpyw5Z OljLJP3vqJdMa6TidhfcatjHbFTve5x1dmjFgMX/MQTd8zf/+Xccy/PX4+lnKNpP eSf1Y4aK+E8KHmBGd6GzX6CIboyGYLS9e3kGnN06F2AQtaLyJFgQ71wRaGuyKmQG FwTn7jiKb1aJAJUDBRAyEOLXPt3iN6QQUSEBATwQA/9jqu0Nbk154+Pn+9mJX/YT fYR2UqK/5FKCqgL5Nt/Deg2re0zMD1f8F9Dj6vuAAxq8hnOkIHKlWolMjkRKkzJi mSPEWl3AuHJ31k948J8it4f8kq/o44usIA2KKVMlI63Q/rmNdfWCyiYQEVGcRbTm GTdZIHYCOgV5dOo4ebFqgYkAlQMFEDIE1nMEJn15jgpJ0QEBW6kEAKqN8XSgzTqf CrxFXT07MlHhfdbKUTNUoboxCGCLNW05vf1A8F5fdE5i14LiwkldWIzPxWD+Sa3L fNPCfCZTaCiyGcLyTzVfBHA18MBAOOX6JiTpdcm22jLGUWBf/aJK3yz/nfbWntd/ LRHysIdVp29lP5BF+J9/Lzbb/9LxP1taiQCVAwUQMgRXZ44CzbsJWQz9AQFf7gP/ Qa2FS5S6RYKG3rYanWADVe/ikFV2lxuM1azlWbsmljXvKVWGe6cV693nS5lGGAjx lbd2ADwXjlkNhv45HLWFm9PEveO9Jjr6tMuXVt8N2pxiX+1PLUN9CtphTIU7Yfjn s6ryZZfwGHSfIxNGi5ua2SoXhg0svaYnxHxXmOtH24iJAJUDBRAyAkpV8qaAEa3W TBkBARfQBAC+S3kbulEAN3SI7/A+A/dtl9DfZezT9C4SRBGsl2clQFMGIXmMQ/7v 7lLXrKQ7U2zVbgNfU8smw5h2vBIL6f1PyexSmc3mz9JY4er8KeZpcf6H0rSkHl+i d7TF0GvuTdNPFO8hc9En+GG6QHOqbkB4NRZ6cwtfwUMhk2FHXBnjF4kAlQMFEDH5 FFukUJAsCdPmTQEBe74EAMBsxDnbD9cuI5MfF/QeTNEG4BIVUZtAkDme4Eg7zvsP d3DeJKCGeNjiCWYrRTCGwaCWzMQk+/+MOmdkI6Oml+AIurJLoHceHS9jP1izdP7f N2jkdeJSBsixunbQWtUElSgOQQ4iF5kqwBhxtOfEP/L9QsoydRMR1yB6WPD75H7V iQCVAwUQMZ9YNGtaZ42Bsqd5AQH0PAQAhpVlAc3ZM/KOTywBSh8zWKVlSk3q/zGn k7hJmFThnlhH1723+WmXE8aAPJi+VXOWJUFQgwELJ6R8jSU2qvk2m1VWyYSqRKvc VRQMqT2wjss0GE1Ngg7tMrkRHT0il7E2xxIb8vMrIwmdkbTfYqBUhhGnsWPHZHq7 MoA1/b+rK7CJAJUDBRAxnvXh3IDyptUyfLkBAYTDA/4mEKlIP/EUX2Zmxgrd/JQB hqcQlkTrBAaDOnOqe/4oewMKR7yaMpztYhJs97i03Vu3fgoLhDspE55ooEeHj0r4 cOdiWfYDsjSFUYSPNVhW4OSruMA3c29ynMqNHD7hpr3rcCPUi7J2RncocOcCjjK2 BQb/9IAUNeK4C9gPxMEZLokAlQMFEDGeO86zWmLrWZ8yPQEBEEID/2fPEUrSX3Yk j5TJPFZ9MNX0lEo7AHYjnJgEbNI4pYm6C3PnMlsYfCSQDHuXmRQHAOWSdwOLvCkN F8eDaF3M6u0urgeVJ+KVUnTz2+LZoZs12XSZKCte0HxjbvPpWMTTrYyimGezH79C mgDVjsHaYOx3EXF0nnDmtXurGioEmW1J =mSvM -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- &a.peter; Peter Wemm <peter@FreeBSD.org> aka <peter@spinner.dialix.com> aka <peter@haywire.dialix.com> aka <peter@perth.dialix.oz.au> Key fingerprint = 47 05 04 CA 4C EE F8 93 F6 DB 02 92 6D F5 58 8A -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.3ia mQCNAy9/FJwAAAEEALxs9dE9tFd0Ru1TXdq301KfEoe5uYKKuldHRBOacG2Wny6/ W3Ill57hOi2+xmq5X/mHkapywxvy4cyLdt31i4GEKDvxpDvEzAYcy2n9dIup/eg2 kEhRBX9G5k/LKM4NQsRIieaIEGGgCZRm0lINqw495aZYrPpO4EqGN2HYnOMZAAUT tCVQZXRlciBXZW1tIDxwZXRlckBoYXl3aXJlLmRpYWxpeC5jb20+iQCVAwUQMwWT cXW7bjh2o/exAQEFkQP+LIx5zKlYp1uR24xGApMFNrNtjh+iDIWnxxb2M2Kb6x4G 9z6OmbUCoDTGrX9SSL2Usm2RD0BZfyv9D9QRWC2TSOPkPRqQgIycc11vgbLolJJN eixqsxlFeKLGEx9eRQCCbo3dQIUjc2yaOe484QamhsK1nL5xpoNWI1P9zIOpDiGJ AJUDBRAxsRPqSoY3Ydic4xkBAbWLA/9q1Fdnnk4unpGQsG31Qbtr4AzaQD5m/JHI 4gRmSmbj6luJMgNG3fpO06Gd/Z7uxyCJB8pTst2a8C/ljOYZxWT+5uSzkQXeMi5c YcI1sZbUpkHtmqPW623hr1PB3ZLA1TIcTbQW+NzJsxQ1Pc6XG9fGkT9WXQW3Xhet AP+juVTAhLQlUGV0ZXIgV2VtbSA8cGV0ZXJAcGVydGguZGlhbGl4Lm96LmF1PokA lQMFEDGxFCFKhjdh2JzjGQEB6XkD/2HOwfuFrnQUtdwFPUkgtEqNeSr64jQ3Maz8 xgEtbaw/ym1PbhbCk311UWQq4+izZE2xktHTFClJfaMnxVIfboPyuiSF99KHiWnf /Gspet0S7m/+RXIwZi1qSqvAanxMiA7kKgFSCmchzas8TQcyyXHtn/gl9v0khJkb /fv3R20btB5QZXRlciBXZW1tIDxwZXRlckBGcmVlQlNELm9yZz6JAJUDBRAxsRJd SoY3Ydic4xkBAZJUA/4i/NWHz5LIH/R4IF/3V3LleFyMFr5EPFY0/4mcv2v+ju9g brOEM/xd4LlPrx1XqPeZ74JQ6K9mHR64RhKR7ZJJ9A+12yr5dVqihe911KyLKab9 4qZUHYi36WQu2VtLGnw/t8Jg44fQSzbBF5q9iTzcfNOYhRkSD3BdDrC3llywO7Ql UGV0ZXIgV2VtbSA8cGV0ZXJAc3Bpbm5lci5kaWFsaXguY29tPokAlQMFEDGxEi1K hjdh2JzjGQEBdA4EAKmNFlj8RF9HQsoI3UabnvYqAWN5wCwEB4u+Zf8zq6OHic23 TzoK1SPlmSdBE1dXXQGS6aiDkLT+xOdeewNs7nfUIcH/DBjSuklAOJzKliXPQW7E kuKNwy4eq5bl+j3HB27i+WBXhn6OaNNQY674LGaR41EGq44Wo5ATcIicig/z =gv+h -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- &a.joerg; Type Bits/KeyID Date User ID pub 1024/76A3F7B1 1996/04/27 Joerg Wunsch <joerg_wunsch@uriah.heep.sax.de> Key fingerprint = DC 47 E6 E4 FF A6 E9 8F 93 21 E0 7D F9 12 D6 4E Joerg Wunsch <joerg_wunsch@interface-business.de> Joerg Wunsch <j@uriah.heep.sax.de> Joerg Wunsch <j@interface-business.de> -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.3ia mQCNAzGCFeAAAAEEAKmRBU2Nvc7nZy1Ouid61HunA/5hF4O91cXm71/KPaT7dskz q5sFXvPJPpawwvqHPHfEbAK42ZaywyFp59L1GaYj87Pda+PlAYRJyY2DJl5/7JPe ziq+7B8MdvbX6D526sdmcR+jPXPbHznASjkx9DPmK+7TgFujyXW7bjh2o/exAAUR tC1Kb2VyZyBXdW5zY2ggPGpvZXJnX3d1bnNjaEB1cmlhaC5oZWVwLnNheC5kZT6J AJUDBRA0FFkBs1pi61mfMj0BAfDCA/oCfkjrhvRwRCpSL8klJ1YDoUJdmw+v4nJc pw3OpYXbwKOPLClsE7K3KCQscHel7auf91nrekAwbrXv9Clp0TegYeAQNjw5vZ9f L6UZ5l3fH8E2GGA7+kqgNWs1KxAnG5GdUvJ9viyrWm8dqWRGo+loDWlZ12L2OgAD fp7jVZTI1okAlQMFEDQPrLoff6kIA1j8vQEB2XQEAK/+SsQPCT/X4RB/PBbxUr28 GpGJMn3AafAaA3plYw3nb4ONbqEw9tJtofAn4UeGraiWw8nHYR2DAzoAjR6OzuX3 TtUV+57BIzrTPHcNkb6h8fPuHU+dFzR+LNoPaGJsFeov6w+Ug6qS9wa5FGDAgaRo LHSyBxcRVoCbOEaS5S5EiQCVAwUQM5BktWVgqaw0+fnVAQGKPwP+OiWho3Zm2GKp lEjiZ5zx3y8upzb+r1Qutb08jr2Ewja04hLg0fCrt6Ad3DoVqxe4POghIpmHM4O4 tcW92THQil70CLzfCxtfUc6eDzoP3krD1/Gwpm2hGrmYA9b/ez9+r2vKBbnUhPmC glx5pf1IzHU9R2XyQz9Xu7FI2baOSZqJAJUDBRAyCIWZdbtuOHaj97EBAVMzA/41 VIph36l+yO9WGKkEB+NYbYOz2W/kyi74kXLvLdTXcRYFaCSZORSsQKPGNMrPZUoL oAKxE25AoCgl5towqr/sCcu0A0MMvJddUvlQ2T+ylSpGmWchqoXCN7FdGyxrZ5zz xzLIvtcio6kaHd76XxyJpltCASupdD53nEtxnu8sRrQxSm9lcmcgV3Vuc2NoIDxq b2VyZ193dW5zY2hAaW50ZXJmYWNlLWJ1c2luZXNzLmRlPokAlQMFEDIIhfR1u244 dqP3sQEBWoID/RhBm+qtW+hu2fqAj9d8CVgEKJugrxZIpXuCKFvO+bCgQtogt9EX +TJh4s8UUdcFkyEIu8CT2C3Rrr1grvckfxvrTgzSzvtYyv1072X3GkVY+SlUMBMA rdl1qNW23oT7Q558ajnsaL065XJ5m7HacgTTikiofYG8i1s7TrsEeq6PtCJKb2Vy ZyBXdW5zY2ggPGpAdXJpYWguaGVlcC5zYXguZGU+iQCVAwUQMaS91D4gHQUlG9CZ AQGYOwQAhPpiobK3d/fz+jWrbQgjkoO+j39glYGXb22+6iuEprFRs/ufKYtjljNT NK3B4DWSkyIPawcuO4Lotijp6jke2bsjFSSashGWcsJlpnwsv7EeFItT3oWTTTQQ ItPbtNyLW6M6xB+jLGtaAvJqfOlzgO9BLfHuA2LY+WvbVW447SWJAJUDBRAxqWRs dbtuOHaj97EBAXDBA/49rzZB5akkTSbt/gNd38OJgC+H8N5da25vV9dD3KoAvXfW fw7OxIsxvQ/Ab+rJmukrrWxPdsC+1WU1+1rGa4PvJp/VJRDes2awGrn+iO7/cQoS IVziC27JpcbvjLvLVcBIiy1yT/RvJ+87a3jPRHt3VFGcpFh4KykxxSNiyGygl4kA lQMFEDGCUB31FVv7jlQtXQEB5KgD/iIJZe5lFkPr2B/Cr7BKMVBot1/JSu05NsHg JZ3uK15w4mVtNPZcFi/dKbn+qRM6LKDFe/GF0HZD/ZD1FJt8yQjzF2w340B+F2GG EOwnClqZDtEAqnIBzM/ECQQqH+6Bi8gpkFZrFgg5eON7ikqmusDnOlYStM/CBfgp SbR8kDmFtCZKb2VyZyBXdW5zY2ggPGpAaW50ZXJmYWNlLWJ1c2luZXNzLmRlPokA lQMFEDHioSdlYKmsNPn51QEByz8D/10uMrwP7MdaXnptd1XNFhpaAPYTVAOcaKlY OGI/LLR9PiU3FbqXO+7INhaxFjBxa0Tw/p4au5Lq1+Mx81edHniJZNS8tz3I3goi jIC3+jn2gnVAWnK5UZUTUVUn/JLVk/oSaIJNIMMDaw4J9xPVVkb+Fh1A+XqtPsVa YESrNp0+iQCVAwUQMwXkzcdm8Q+/vPRJAQEA4QQAgNNX1HFgXrMetDb+w6yEGQDk JCDAY9b6mA2HNeKLQAhsoZl4HwA1+iuQaCgo3lyFC+1Sf097OUTs74z5X1vCedqV oFw9CxI3xuctt3pJCbbN68flOlnq0WdYouWWGlFwLlh5PEy//VtwX9lqgsizlhzi t+fX6BT4BgKi5baDhrWJAJUDBRAyCKveD9eCJxX4hUkBAebMA/9mRPy6K6i7TX2R jUKSl2p5oYrXPk12Zsw4ijuktslxzQhOCyMSCGK2UEC4UM9MXp1H1JZQxN/DcfnM 7VaUt+Ve0wZ6DC9gBSHJ1hKVxHe5XTj26mIr4rcXNy2XEDMK9QsnBxIAZnBVTjSO LdhqqSMp3ULLOpBlRL2RYrqi27IXr4kAlQMFEDGpbnd1u244dqP3sQEBJnQD/RVS Azgf4uorv3fpbosI0LE3LUufAYGBSJNJnskeKyudZkNkI5zGGDwVneH/cSkKT4OR ooeqcTBxKeMaMuXPVl30QahgNwWjfuTvl5OZ8orsQGGWIn5FhqYXsKkjEGxIOBOf vvlVQ0UbcR0N2+5F6Mb5GqrXZpIesn7jFJpkQKPU =97h7 -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----