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diff --git a/documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc b/documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc index aa6583ca95..0abb750dab 100644 --- a/documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc +++ b/documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc @@ -7,7 +7,8 @@ description: Basic commands and functionality of the FreeBSD operating system tags: ["basics", "virtual consoles", "users", "management", "permissions", "directory structure", "disk organization", "mounting", "processes", "daemons", "shell", "editor", "manual pages", "devices"] showBookMenu: true weight: 5 -path: "/books/handbook/" +params: + path: "/books/handbook/basics/" --- [[basics]] @@ -74,7 +75,7 @@ After reading this chapter, you will know: Unless FreeBSD has been configured to automatically start a graphical environment during startup, the system will boot into a command line login prompt, as seen in this example: -[source,shell] +[.programlisting] .... FreeBSD/amd64 (pc3.example.org) (ttyv0) @@ -82,20 +83,20 @@ login: .... The first line contains some information about the system. -The `amd64` indicates that the system in this example is running a 64-bit version of FreeBSD. -The hostname is `pc3.example.org`, and [.filename]#ttyv0# indicates that this is the "system console". +The `amd64` indicates that FreeBSD is running on a 64-bit x86 system. +The hostname is `pc3.example.org`, and `ttyv0` indicates that this is the "system console". The second line is the login prompt. Since FreeBSD is a multiuser system, it needs some way to distinguish between different users. This is accomplished by requiring every user to log into the system before gaining access to the programs on the system. -Every user has a unique name "username" and a personal "password". +Every user has a unique "username" and a personal "password". To log into the system console, type the username that was configured during system installation, as described in crossref:bsdinstall[bsdinstall-addusers,Add Users], and press kbd:[Enter]. Then enter the password associated with the username and press kbd:[Enter]. The password is _not echoed_ for security reasons. Once the correct password is input, the message of the day (MOTD) will be displayed followed by a command prompt. -Depending upon the shell that was selected when the user was created, this prompt will be a `#`, `$`, or `%` character. +Depending upon the shell that was selected when the user was created, this prompt will be a `+#+`, `$`, or `%` character. The prompt indicates that the user is now logged into the FreeBSD system console and ready to try the available commands. [[consoles-virtual]] @@ -110,7 +111,7 @@ Each virtual console has its own login prompt and shell and it is easy to switch This essentially provides the command line equivalent of having several windows open at the same time in a graphical environment. The key combinations kbd:[Alt+F1] through kbd:[Alt+F8] have been reserved by FreeBSD for switching between virtual consoles. -Use kbd:[Alt+F1] to switch to the system console ([.filename]#ttyv0#), kbd:[Alt+F2] to access the first virtual console ([.filename]#ttyv1#), kbd:[Alt+F3] to access the second virtual console ([.filename]#ttyv2#), and so on. +Use kbd:[Alt+F1] to switch to the system console (`ttyv0`), kbd:[Alt+F2] to access the first virtual console (`ttyv1`), kbd:[Alt+F3] to access the second virtual console (`ttyv2`), and so on. When using Xorg as a graphical console, the combination becomes kbd:[Ctrl+Alt+F1] to return to a text-based virtual console. When switching from one console to the next, FreeBSD manages the screen output. @@ -119,7 +120,7 @@ The programs that are launched in one virtual console do not stop running when t Refer to man:kbdcontrol[1], man:vidcontrol[1], man:atkbd[4], man:syscons[4], and man:vt[4] for a more technical description of the FreeBSD console and its keyboard drivers. -In FreeBSD, the number of available virtual consoles is configured in this section of [.filename]#/etc/ttys#: +In FreeBSD, the number of available virtual consoles is configured in this section of `/etc/ttys`: [.programlisting] .... @@ -137,10 +138,10 @@ ttyv7 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" xterm on secure ttyv8 "/usr/X11R6/bin/xdm -nodaemon" xterm off secure .... -To disable a virtual console, put a comment symbol (`\#`) at the beginning of the line representing that virtual console. -For example, to reduce the number of available virtual consoles from eight to four, put a `#` in front of the last four lines representing virtual consoles [.filename]#ttyv5# through [.filename]#ttyv8#. -_Do not_ comment out the line for the system console [.filename]#ttyv0#. -Note that the last virtual console ([.filename]#ttyv8#) is used to access the graphical environment if Xorg has been installed and configured as described in crossref:x11[x11,The X Window System]. +To disable a virtual console, put a comment symbol (`+#+`) at the beginning of the line representing that virtual console. +For example, to reduce the number of available virtual consoles from eight to four, put a `+#+` in front of the last four lines representing virtual consoles `ttyv5` through `ttyv8`. +_Do not_ comment out the line for the system console `ttyv0`. +Note that the last virtual console (`ttyv8`) is used to access the graphical environment if Xorg has been installed and configured as described in crossref:x11[x11,The X Window System]. For a detailed description of every column in this file and the available options for the virtual consoles, refer to man:ttys[5]. @@ -154,7 +155,7 @@ While in single user mode, networking and other virtual consoles are not availab However, full `root` access to the system is available, and by default, the `root` password is not needed. For these reasons, physical access to the keyboard is needed to boot into this mode and determining who has physical access to the keyboard is something to consider when securing a FreeBSD system. -The settings which control single user mode are found in this section of [.filename]#/etc/ttys#: +The settings which control single user mode are found in this section of `/etc/ttys`: [.programlisting] .... @@ -202,7 +203,7 @@ To select a new video mode, specify the mode using man:vidcontrol[1] as the `roo # vidcontrol MODE_279 .... -If the new video mode is acceptable, it can be permanently set on boot by adding it to [.filename]#/etc/rc.conf#: +If the new video mode is acceptable, it can be permanently set on boot by adding it to `/etc/rc.conf`: [.programlisting] .... @@ -238,12 +239,6 @@ The reason for this is security; if all services ran as the superuser, they coul Examples of system accounts are `daemon`, `operator`, `bind`, `news`, and `www`. -[WARNING] -==== - -Care must be taken when using the operator group, as unintended superuser-like access privileges may be granted, including but not limited to shutdown, reboot, and access to all items in [.filename]#/dev# in the group. -==== - `nobody` is the generic unprivileged system account. However, the more services that use `nobody`, the more files and processes that user will become associated with, and hence the more privileged that user becomes. @@ -260,7 +255,7 @@ Every user account on a FreeBSD system has certain information associated with i User name:: The user name is typed at the `login:` prompt. -Each user must have a unique user name. +Each user must have a unique user name. There are a number of rules for creating valid user names which are documented in man:passwd[5]. It is recommended to use user names that consist of eight or fewer, all lower case characters in order to maintain backwards compatibility with applications. @@ -268,7 +263,7 @@ Password:: Each account has an associated password. User ID (UID):: -The User ID (UID) is a number used to uniquely identify the user to the FreeBSD system. +The User ID (UID) is a number used to uniquely identify the user to the FreeBSD system. Commands that allow a user name to be specified will first convert it to the UID. It is recommended to use a UID less than 65535, since higher values may cause compatibility issues with some software. @@ -298,7 +293,7 @@ Similar to a comment, this information can contain spaces, uppercase characters, Home directory:: The home directory is the full path to a directory on the system. This is the user's starting directory when the user logs in. -A common convention is to put all user home directories under [.filename]#/home/username# or [.filename]#/usr/home/username#. +A common convention is to put all user home directories under `/home/username` or `/usr/home/username`. Each user stores their personal files and subdirectories in their own home directory. User shell:: @@ -350,12 +345,13 @@ This software provides activity logging and allows the administrator to configur === Managing Accounts FreeBSD provides a variety of different commands to manage user accounts. -The most common commands are summarized in <<users-modifying-utilities>>, followed by some examples of their usage. +The most common commands are summarized in +crossref:basics[users-modifying-utilities,Utilities for Managing User Accounts], followed by some examples of their usage. See the manual page for each utility for more details and usage examples. [[users-modifying-utilities]] .Utilities for Managing User Accounts -[cols="1,1", frame="none", options="header"] +[cols="25h,~"] |=== | Command | Summary @@ -374,18 +370,21 @@ See the manual page for each utility for more details and usage examples. |man:pw[8] |A powerful and flexible tool for modifying all aspects of user accounts. + +|man:bsdconfig[8] +|A system configuration utility with account management support. |=== [[users-adduser]] -==== `adduser` +==== Adding a user The recommended program for adding new users is man:adduser[8]. -When a new user is added, this program automatically updates [.filename]#/etc/passwd# and [.filename]#/etc/group#. -It also creates a home directory for the new user, copies in the default configuration files from [.filename]#/usr/share/skel#, and can optionally mail the new user a welcome message. +When a new user is added, this program automatically updates `/etc/passwd` and `/etc/group`. +It also creates a home directory for the new user, copies in the default configuration files from `/usr/share/skel`, and can optionally mail the new user a welcome message. This utility must be run as the superuser. The man:adduser[8] utility is interactive and walks through the steps for creating a new user account. -As seen in <<users-modifying-adduser>>, either input the required information or press kbd:[Return] to accept the default value shown in square brackets. +As seen in crossref:basics[users-modifying-adduser, Adding a User on FreeBSD], either input the required information or press kbd:[Return] to accept the default value shown in square brackets. In this example, the user has been invited into the `wheel` group, allowing them to become the superuser with man:su[1]. When finished, the utility will prompt to either create another user or to exit. @@ -396,6 +395,12 @@ When finished, the utility will prompt to either create another user or to exit. [source,shell] .... # adduser +.... + +The output should be similar to the following: + +[.programlisting] +.... Username: jru Full name: J. Random User Uid (Leave empty for default): @@ -424,7 +429,6 @@ OK? (yes/no): yes adduser: INFO: Successfully added (jru) to the user database. Add another user? (yes/no): no Goodbye! -# .... ==== @@ -434,20 +438,23 @@ Since the password is not echoed when typed, be careful to not mistype the passw ==== [[users-rmuser]] -==== `rmuser` +==== Removing a user To completely remove a user from the system, run man:rmuser[8] as the superuser. This command performs the following steps: [.procedure] +==== . Removes the user's man:crontab[1] entry, if one exists. . Removes any man:at[1] jobs belonging to the user. -. Kills all processes owned by the user. +. Sends a SIGKILL signal to all processes owned by the user. . Removes the user from the system's local password file. -. Optionally removes the user's home directory, if it is owned by the user. -. Removes the incoming mail files belonging to the user from [.filename]#/var/mail#. -. Removes all files owned by the user from temporary file storage areas such as [.filename]#/tmp#. -. Finally, removes the username from all groups to which it belongs in [.filename]#/etc/group#. If a group becomes empty and the group name is the same as the username, the group is removed. This complements the per-user unique groups created by man:adduser[8]. +. Removes the user's home directory (if it is owned by the user), including handling of symbolic links in the path to the actual home directory. +. Removes the incoming mail files belonging to the user from `/var/mail`. +. Removes all files owned by the user from `/tmp`, `/var/tmp`, and `/var/tmp/vi.recover`. +. Removes the username from all groups to which it belongs in `/etc/group`. (If a group becomes empty and the group name is the same as the username, the group is removed; this complements man:adduser[8]'s per-user unique groups.) +. Removes all message queues, shared memory segments and semaphores owned by the user. +==== man:rmuser[8] cannot be used to remove superuser accounts since that is almost always an indication of massive destruction. @@ -459,17 +466,23 @@ By default, an interactive mode is used, as shown in the following example. [source,shell] .... # rmuser jru + +.... + +The output should be similar to the following: + +[.programlisting] +.... Matching password entry: jru:*:1001:1001::0:0:J. Random User:/home/jru:/usr/local/bin/zsh Is this the entry you wish to remove? y Remove user's home directory (/home/jru)? y Removing user (jru): mailspool home passwd. -# .... ==== [[users-chpass]] -==== `chpass` +==== Change user information Any user can use man:chpass[1] to change their default shell and personal information associated with their user account. The superuser can use this utility to change additional account information for any user. @@ -482,9 +495,9 @@ When the user exits from the editor, the user database is updated with the new i This utility will prompt for the user's password when exiting the editor, unless the utility is run as the superuser. ==== -In <<users-modifying-chpass-su>>, the superuser has typed `chpass jru` and is now viewing the fields that can be changed for this user +In crossref:basics[users-modifying-chpass-su,Using `chpass` as Superuser], the superuser has typed `chpass jru` and is now viewing the fields that can be changed for this user. If `jru` runs this command instead, only the last six fields will be displayed and available for editing. -This is shown in <<users-modifying-chpass-ru>>. +This is shown in crossref:basics[users-modifying-chpass-ru,Using `chpass` as Regular User]. [[users-modifying-chpass-su]] .Using `chpass` as Superuser @@ -492,7 +505,14 @@ This is shown in <<users-modifying-chpass-ru>>. ==== [source,shell] .... -#Changing user database information for jru. +# chpass jru +.... + +The output should be similar to the following: + +[.programlisting] +.... +# Changing user database information for jru. Login: jru Password: * Uid [#]: 1001 @@ -534,7 +554,7 @@ How to configure NIS is covered in crossref:network-servers[network-servers,Netw ==== [[users-passwd]] -==== `passwd` +==== Change user password Any user can easily change their password using man:passwd[1]. To prevent accidental or unauthorized changes, this command will prompt for the user's original password before a new password can be set: @@ -545,6 +565,12 @@ To prevent accidental or unauthorized changes, this command will prompt for the [source,shell] .... % passwd +.... + +The output should be similar to the following: + +[.programlisting] +.... Changing local password for jru. Old password: New password: @@ -564,6 +590,12 @@ This allows the password to be changed when a user cannot remember the original [source,shell] .... # passwd jru +.... + +The output should be similar to the following: + +[.programlisting] +.... Changing local password for jru. New password: Retype new password: @@ -578,7 +610,7 @@ As with man:chpass[1], man:yppasswd[1] is a link to man:passwd[1], so NIS works ==== [[users-pw]] -==== `pw` +==== Create, remove, modify and display system users and groups The man:pw[8] utility can create, remove, modify, and display users and groups. It functions as a front end to the system user and group files. @@ -591,15 +623,20 @@ A group is a list of users. A group is identified by its group name and GID. In FreeBSD, the kernel uses the UID of a process, and the list of groups it belongs to, to determine what the process is allowed to do. Most of the time, the GID of a user or process usually means the first group in the list. -The group name to GID mapping is listed in [.filename]#/etc/group#. +The group name to GID mapping is listed in `/etc/group`. This is a plain text file with four colon-delimited fields. The first field is the group name, the second is the encrypted password, the third the GID, and the fourth the comma-delimited list of members. -For a more complete description of the syntax, refer to man:group[5]. +For a complete description of the syntax, refer to man:group[5]. -The superuser can modify [.filename]#/etc/group# using a text editor. +The superuser can modify `/etc/group` using a text editor, although editing the group file using man:vigr[8] is preferred because it can catch some common mistakes. Alternatively, man:pw[8] can be used to add and edit groups. For example, to add a group called `teamtwo` and then confirm that it exists: +[WARNING] +==== +Care must be taken when using the operator group, as unintended superuser-like access privileges may be granted, including but not limited to shutdown, reboot, and access to all items in `/dev` in the group. +==== + .Adding a Group Using man:pw[8] [example] ==== @@ -607,6 +644,12 @@ For example, to add a group called `teamtwo` and then confirm that it exists: .... # pw groupadd teamtwo # pw groupshow teamtwo +.... + +The output should be similar to the following: + +[.programlisting] +.... teamtwo:*:1100: .... ==== @@ -622,6 +665,12 @@ This command will add `jru` as a member of `teamtwo`. .... # pw groupmod teamtwo -M jru # pw groupshow teamtwo +.... + +The output should be similar to the following: + +[.programlisting] +.... teamtwo:*:1100:jru .... ==== @@ -629,7 +678,7 @@ teamtwo:*:1100:jru The argument to `-M` is a comma-delimited list of users to be added to a new (empty) group or to replace the members of an existing group. To the user, this group membership is different from (and in addition to) the user's primary group listed in the password file. This means that the user will not show up as a member when using `groupshow` with man:pw[8], but will show up when the information is queried via man:id[1] or a similar tool. -When man:pw[8] is used to add a user to a group, it only manipulates [.filename]#/etc/group# and does not attempt to read additional data from [.filename]#/etc/passwd#. +When man:pw[8] is used to add a user to a group, it only manipulates `/etc/group` and does not attempt to read additional data from `/etc/passwd`. .Adding a New Member to a Group Using man:pw[8] [example] @@ -638,6 +687,12 @@ When man:pw[8] is used to add a user to a group, it only manipulates [.filename] .... # pw groupmod teamtwo -m db # pw groupshow teamtwo +.... + +The output should be similar to the following: + +[.programlisting] +.... teamtwo:*:1100:jru,db .... ==== @@ -651,22 +706,28 @@ Unlike the previous example, these users are appended to the group and do not re [source,shell] .... % id jru +.... + +The output should be similar to the following: + +[.programlisting] +.... uid=1001(jru) gid=1001(jru) groups=1001(jru), 1100(teamtwo) .... ==== In this example, `jru` is a member of the groups `jru` and `teamtwo`. -For more information about this command and the format of [.filename]#/etc/group#, refer to man:pw[8] and man:group[5]. +For more information about this command and the format of `/etc/group`, refer to man:pw[8] and man:group[5]. [[permissions]] == Permissions -In FreeBSD, every file and directory has an associated set of permissions and several utilities are available for viewing and modifying these permissions. +In FreeBSD, every file and directory has an associated set of permissions and several utilities are available for viewing and modifying these permissions. Understanding how permissions work is necessary to make sure that users are able to access the files that they need and are unable to improperly access the files used by the operating system or owned by other users. This section discusses the traditional UNIX(R) permissions used in FreeBSD. -For finer grained file system access control, refer to crossref:security[fs-acl,“Access Control Lists”]. +For finer-grained file system access control, refer to crossref:security[fs-acl,Access Control Lists]. In UNIX(R), basic permissions are assigned using three types of access: read, write, and execute. These access types are used to determine file access to the file's owner, group, and others (everyone else). @@ -717,19 +778,25 @@ When reading the "Directory Listing" column, a `-` is used to represent a permis |`rwx` |=== -Use the `-l` argument to man:ls[1] to view a long directory listing that includes a column of information about a file's permissions for the owner, group, and everyone else. -For example, an `ls -l` in an arbitrary directory may show: +Use the `-l` argument with man:ls[1] to view a long directory listing that includes a column of information about a file's permissions for the owner, group, and everyone else. +For example, `ls -l` in an arbitrary directory may show: [source,shell] .... % ls -l +.... + +The output should be similar to the following: + +[.programlisting] +.... total 530 -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 512 Sep 5 12:31 myfile -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 512 Sep 5 12:31 otherfile -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 7680 Sep 5 12:31 email.txt .... -The first (leftmost) character in the first column indicates whether this file is a regular file, a directory, a special character device, a socket, or any other special pseudo-file device. +Focusing on the line for `myfile`, the first `(leftmost)` character indicates whether this file is a regular file, a directory, a special character device, a socket, or any other special pseudo-file device. In this example, the `-` indicates a regular file. The next three characters, `rw-` in this example, give the permissions for the owner of the file. The next three characters, `r--`, give the permissions for the group that the file belongs to. @@ -738,8 +805,8 @@ A dash means that the permission is turned off. In this example, the permissions are set so the owner can read and write to the file, the group can read the file, and the rest of the world can only read the file. According to the table above, the permissions for this file would be `644`, where each digit represents the three parts of the file's permission. -How does the system control permissions on devices? FreeBSD treats most hardware devices as a file that programs can open, read, and write data to. -These special device files are stored in [.filename]#/dev/#. +How does the system control permissions on devices? FreeBSD treats most hardware devices as a file that programs can open, read, and write data to. +These special device files are stored in `/dev/`. Directories are also treated as files. They have read, write, and execute permissions. @@ -815,7 +882,7 @@ Symbolic permissions use the syntax of (who) (action) (permissions), where the f |=== These values are used with man:chmod[1], but with letters instead of numbers. -For example, the following command would block other users from accessing _FILE_: +For example, the following command would block both members of the group associated with _FILE_ and all other users from accessing _FILE_: [source,shell] .... @@ -837,7 +904,7 @@ These flags add an additional level of security and control over files, but not With file flags, even `root` can be prevented from removing or altering files. File flags are modified using man:chflags[1]. -For example, to enable the system undeletable flag on the file [.filename]#file1#, issue the following command: +For example, to enable the system undeletable flag on the file `file1`, issue the following command: [source,shell] .... @@ -867,7 +934,7 @@ Several file flags may only be added or removed by the `root` user. In other cases, the file owner may set its file flags. Refer to man:chflags[1] and man:chflags[2] for more information. -=== The `setuid`, `setgid`, and `sticky` Permissions +=== The setuid, setgid, and sticky Permissions Other than the permissions already discussed, there are three other specific settings that all administrators should know about. They are the `setuid`, `setgid`, and `sticky` permissions. @@ -881,14 +948,21 @@ As an example, man:passwd[1] runs with the real user ID when a user changes thei However, in order to update the password database, the command runs as the effective ID of the `root` user. This allows users to change their passwords without seeing a `Permission Denied` error. -The setuid permission may be set by prefixing a permission set with the number four (4) as shown in the following example: +The setuid permission may be added symbolically by adding the `s` permission for the user as in the following example: + +[source,shell] +.... +# chmod u+s suidexample.sh +.... + +The setuid permission may also be set by prefixing a permission set with the number four (4) as shown in the following example: [source,shell] .... # chmod 4755 suidexample.sh .... -The permissions on [.filename]#suidexample.sh# now look like the following: +The permissions on `suidexample.sh` now look like the following: [.programlisting] .... @@ -934,7 +1008,14 @@ Although man:passwd[1] is run as a normal user, it is using the effective UID of The `setgid` permission performs the same function as the `setuid` permission; except that it alters the group settings. When an application or utility executes with this setting, it will be granted the permissions based on the group that owns the file, not the user who started the process. -To set the `setgid` permission on a file, provide man:chmod[1] with a leading two (2): +To set the `setgid` permission on a file symbolically, add the `s` permission for the group with man:chmod[1]: + +[source,shell] +.... +# chmod g+s sgidexample.sh +.... + +Alternatively, provide man:chmod[1] with a leading two (2): [source,shell] .... @@ -958,8 +1039,15 @@ The `setuid` and `setgid` permission bits may lower system security, by allowing The third special permission, the `sticky bit`, can strengthen the security of a system. When the `sticky bit` is set on a directory, it allows file deletion only by the file owner. -This is useful to prevent file deletion in public directories, such as [.filename]#/tmp#, by users who do not own the file. -To utilize this permission, prefix the permission set with a one (1): +This is useful to prevent file deletion in public directories, such as `/tmp`, by users who do not own the file. +To utilize this permission, add the `t` mode to the file: + +[source,shell] +.... +# chmod +t /tmp +.... + +Alternatively, prefix the permission set with a one (1): [source,shell] .... @@ -983,134 +1071,128 @@ drwxrwxrwt 10 root wheel 512 Aug 31 01:49 tmp The FreeBSD directory hierarchy is fundamental to obtaining an overall understanding of the system. The most important directory is root or, "/". -This directory is the first one mounted at boot time and it contains the base system necessary to prepare the operating system for multi-user operation. +This directory is the first one mounted at boot time and it contains the base system necessary to prepare the operating system for multi-user operation. The root directory also contains mount points for other file systems that are mounted during the transition to multi-user operation. A mount point is a directory where additional file systems can be grafted onto a parent file system (usually the root file system). -This is further described in <<disk-organization>>. -Standard mount points include [.filename]#/usr/#, [.filename]#/var/#, [.filename]#/tmp/#, [.filename]#/mnt/#, and [.filename]#/cdrom/#. -These directories are usually referenced to entries in [.filename]#/etc/fstab#. +This is further described in crossref:basics[disk-organization, Disk Organization]. +Standard mount points include `/usr/`, `/var/`, `/tmp/`, `/mnt/`, and `/cdrom/`. +These directories are usually referenced to entries in `/etc/fstab`. This file is a table of various file systems and mount points and is read by the system. -Most of the file systems in [.filename]#/etc/fstab# are mounted automatically at boot time from the script man:rc[8] unless their entry includes `noauto`. -Details can be found in <<disks-fstab>>. +Most of the file systems in `/etc/fstab` are mounted automatically at boot time from the script man:rc[8] unless their entry includes `noauto`. +Details can be found in crossref:basics[disks-fstab, The fstab File]. A complete description of the file system hierarchy is available in man:hier[7]. The following table provides a brief overview of the most common directories. -[.informaltable] -[cols="1,1", frame="none", options="header"] +[cols="25h,~"] |=== | Directory | Description -|[.filename]#/# +|`/` |Root directory of the file system. -|[.filename]#/bin/# +|`/bin/` |User utilities fundamental to both single-user and multi-user environments. -|[.filename]#/boot/# +|`/boot/` |Programs and configuration files used during operating system bootstrap. -|[.filename]#/boot/defaults/# +|`/boot/defaults/` |Default boot configuration files. Refer to man:loader.conf[5] for details. -|[.filename]#/dev/# -|Device nodes. Refer to man:intro[4] for details. +|`/dev/` +|Device special files managed by man:devfs[5] -|[.filename]#/etc/# +|`/etc/` |System configuration files and scripts. -|[.filename]#/etc/defaults/# +|`/etc/defaults/` |Default system configuration files. Refer to man:rc[8] for details. -|[.filename]#/etc/mail/# -|Configuration files for mail transport agents such as man:sendmail[8]. - -|[.filename]#/etc/periodic/# +|`/etc/periodic/` |Scripts that run daily, weekly, and monthly, via man:cron[8]. Refer to man:periodic[8] for details. -|[.filename]#/etc/ppp/# -|man:ppp[8] configuration files. +|`/lib/` +|Critical system libraries needed for binaries in `/bin` and `/sbin` + +|`/libexec/` +|Critical system files -|[.filename]#/mnt/# +|`/media/` +|Contains subdirectories to be used as mount points for removable media such as CDs, USB drives, and floppy disks + +|`/mnt/` |Empty directory commonly used by system administrators as a temporary mount point. -|[.filename]#/proc/# -|Process file system. Refer to man:procfs[5], man:mount_procfs[8] for details. +|`/net/` +|Automounted NFS shares; see man:auto_master[5] + +|`/proc/` +|Process file system. Refer to man:procfs[5] for details. -|[.filename]#/rescue/# +|`/rescue/` |Statically linked programs for emergency recovery as described in man:rescue[8]. -|[.filename]#/root/# +|`/root/` |Home directory for the `root` account. -|[.filename]#/sbin/# +|`/sbin/` |System programs and administration utilities fundamental to both single-user and multi-user environments. -|[.filename]#/tmp/# -|Temporary files which are usually _not_ preserved across a system reboot. A memory-based file system is often mounted at [.filename]#/tmp#. This can be automated using the tmpmfs-related variables of man:rc.conf[5] or with an entry in [.filename]#/etc/fstab#; refer to man:mdmfs[8] for details. +|`/tmp/` +|Temporary files which are usually _not_ preserved across a system reboot. A memory-based file system is often mounted at `/tmp`. This can be automated using the tmpmfs-related variables of man:rc.conf[5] or with an entry in `/etc/fstab`; refer to man:mdmfs[8] for details. -|[.filename]#/usr/# +|`/usr/` |The majority of user utilities and applications. -|[.filename]#/usr/bin/# +|`/usr/bin/` |Common utilities, programming tools, and applications. -|[.filename]#/usr/include/# +|`/usr/include/` |Standard C include files. -|[.filename]#/usr/lib/# +|`/usr/lib/` |Archive libraries. -|[.filename]#/usr/libdata/# +|`/usr/libdata/` |Miscellaneous utility data files. -|[.filename]#/usr/libexec/# +|`/usr/libexec/` |System daemons and system utilities executed by other programs. -|[.filename]#/usr/local/# -|Local executables and libraries. Also used as the default destination for the FreeBSD ports framework. Within [.filename]#/usr/local#, the general layout sketched out by man:hier[7] for [.filename]#/usr# should be used. Exceptions are the man directory, which is directly under [.filename]#/usr/local# rather than under [.filename]#/usr/local/share#, and the ports documentation is in [.filename]#share/doc/port#. +|`/usr/local/` +|Local executables and libraries. Also used as the default destination for the FreeBSD ports framework. Within `/usr/local`, the general layout sketched out by man:hier[7] for `/usr` should be used. Exceptions are the man directory, which is directly under `/usr/local` rather than under `/usr/local/share`, and the ports documentation is in `share/doc/port`. -|[.filename]#/usr/obj/# -|Architecture-specific target tree produced by building the [.filename]#/usr/src# tree. - -|[.filename]#/usr/ports/# +|`/usr/ports/` |The FreeBSD Ports Collection (optional). -|[.filename]#/usr/sbin/# +|`/usr/sbin/` |System daemons and system utilities executed by users. -|[.filename]#/usr/share/# +|`/usr/share/` |Architecture-independent files. -|[.filename]#/usr/src/# +|`/usr/src/` |BSD and/or local source files. -|[.filename]#/var/# -|Multi-purpose log, temporary, transient, and spool files. A memory-based file system is sometimes mounted at [.filename]#/var#. This can be automated using the varmfs-related variables in man:rc.conf[5] or with an entry in [.filename]#/etc/fstab#; refer to man:mdmfs[8] for details. +|`/var/` +|Multi-purpose log, temporary, transient, and spool files. -|[.filename]#/var/log/# +|`/var/log/` |Miscellaneous system log files. -|[.filename]#/var/mail/# -|User mailbox files. - -|[.filename]#/var/spool/# -|Miscellaneous printer and mail system spooling directories. - -|[.filename]#/var/tmp/# -|Temporary files which are usually preserved across a system reboot, unless [.filename]#/var# is a memory-based file system. +|`/var/tmp/` +|Temporary files which are usually preserved across a system reboot. -|[.filename]#/var/yp/# -|NIS maps. |=== [[disk-organization]] == Disk Organization The smallest unit of organization that FreeBSD uses to find files is the filename. -Filenames are case-sensitive, which means that [.filename]#readme.txt# and [.filename]#README.TXT# are two separate files. +Filenames are case-sensitive, which means that `readme.txt` and `README.TXT` are two separate files. FreeBSD does not use the extension of a file to determine whether the file is a program, document, or some other form of data. Files are stored in directories. @@ -1118,10 +1200,13 @@ A directory may contain no files, or it may contain many hundreds of files. A directory can also contain other directories, allowing a hierarchy of directories within one another in order to organize data. Files and directories are referenced by giving the file or directory name, followed by a forward slash, `/`, followed by any other directory names that are necessary. -For example, if the directory [.filename]#foo# contains a directory [.filename]#bar# which contains the file [.filename]#readme.txt#, the full name, or _path_, to the file is [.filename]#foo/bar/readme.txt#. +For example, if the directory `foo` contains a directory `bar` which contains the file `readme.txt`, the full name, or _path_, to the file is `foo/bar/readme.txt`. Note that this is different from Windows(R) which uses `\` to separate file and directory names. FreeBSD does not use drive letters, or other drive names in the path. -For example, one would not type [.filename]#c:\foo\bar\readme.txt# on FreeBSD. +For example, one would not type `c:\foo\bar\readme.txt` on FreeBSD. + +[[disks-file-systems]] +=== File systems Directories and files are stored in a file system. Each file system contains exactly one directory at the very top level, called the _root directory_ for that file system. @@ -1137,37 +1222,37 @@ Call `A` the root file system. If man:ls[1] is used to view the contents of this directory, it will show two subdirectories, `A1` and `A2`. The directory tree looks like this: -image::example-dir1.png[] +image::example-dir1.png[Directory tree with the root directory and two subdirectories, A1 and A2] A file system must be mounted on to a directory in another file system. When mounting file system `B` on to the directory `A1`, the root directory of `B` replaces `A1`, and the directories in `B` appear accordingly: -image::example-dir2.png[] +image::example-dir2.png[Directory tree with the root directory and two subdirectories, A1 and A2. And more subdirectories, B1 and B2 hanging from A1] -Any files that are in the `B1` or `B2` directories can be reached with the path [.filename]#/A1/B1# or [.filename]#/A1/B2# as necessary. -Any files that were in [.filename]#/A1# have been temporarily hidden. +Any files that are in the `B1` or `B2` directories can be reached with the path `/A1/B1` or `/A1/B2` as necessary. +Any files that were in `/A1` have been temporarily hidden. They will reappear if `B` is _unmounted_ from `A`. If `B` had been mounted on `A2` then the diagram would look like this: -image::example-dir3.png[] +image::example-dir3.png[Directory tree with the root directory and two subdirectories, A1 and A2. And more subdirectories, B1 and B2 hanging from A2] -and the paths would be [.filename]#/A2/B1# and [.filename]#/A2/B2# respectively. +and the paths would be `/A2/B1` and `/A2/B2` respectively. File systems can be mounted on top of one another. Continuing the last example, the `C` file system could be mounted on top of the `B1` directory in the `B` file system, leading to this arrangement: -image::example-dir4.png[] +image::example-dir4.png[A complex directory tree. With different subdirectories hanging from root.] Or `C` could be mounted directly on to the `A` file system, under the `A1` directory: -image::example-dir5.png[] +image::example-dir5.png[A complex directory tree. With different subdirectories hanging from root.] It is entirely possible to have one large root file system, and not need to create any others. There are some drawbacks to this approach, and one advantage. .Benefits of Multiple File Systems -* Different file systems can have different _mount options_. For example, the root file system can be mounted read-only, making it impossible for users to inadvertently delete or edit a critical file. Separating user-writable file systems, such as [.filename]#/home#, from other file systems allows them to be mounted _nosuid_. This option prevents the _suid_/_guid_ bits on executables stored on the file system from taking effect, possibly improving security. +* Different file systems can have different _mount options_. For example, the root file system can be mounted read-only, making it impossible for users to inadvertently delete or edit a critical file. Separating user-writable file systems, such as `/home`, from other file systems allows them to be mounted _nosuid_. This option prevents the _suid_/_guid_ bits on executables stored on the file system from taking effect, possibly improving security. * FreeBSD automatically optimizes the layout of files on a file system, depending on how the file system is being used. So a file system that contains many small files that are written frequently will have a different optimization to one that contains fewer, larger files. By having one big file system this optimization breaks down. * FreeBSD's file systems are robust if power is lost. However, a power loss at a critical point could still damage the structure of the file system. By splitting data over multiple file systems it is more likely that the system will still come up, making it easier to restore from backup as necessary. @@ -1177,21 +1262,42 @@ There are some drawbacks to this approach, and one advantage. [IMPORTANT] ==== FreeBSD features the man:growfs[8] command, which makes it possible to increase the size of file system on the fly, removing this limitation. +A file system can only be expanded into free space in the partition in which it resides. +If there is space after the partition, the partition can be expanded with man:gpart[8]. +If the partition is the last one on a virtual disk, and the disk is expanded, the partition can then be expanded. ==== -File systems are contained in partitions. -This does not have the same meaning as the common usage of the term partition (for example, MS-DOS(R) partition), because of FreeBSD's UNIX(R) heritage. -Each partition is identified by a letter from `a` through to `h`. -Each partition can contain only one file system, which means that file systems are often described by either their typical mount point in the file system hierarchy, or the letter of the partition they are contained in. +[[disks-partitions]] +=== Disk partitions + +File systems are contained in _partitions_. +Disks are divided into partitions using one of several partitioning schemes; +see crossref:bsdinstall[bsdinstall-part-manual, Manual Partitioning]. +The newer scheme is GPT; older BIOS-based computers use MBR. +GPT supports division of a disk into partitions with a size, offset, and type. +It supports a large number of partitions and partition types, and is recommended whenever its use is possible. +GPT partitions use the disk name with a suffix, where the suffix is `p1` for the first partition, `p2` for the second, and so on. +MBR, however, supports only a small number of partitions. +The MBR partitions are known in FreeBSD as `slices`. +Slices may be used for different operating systems. +FreeBSD slices are subdivided into partitions using BSD labels (see man:bsdlabel[8]). + +Slice numbers follow the device name, prefixed with an `s`, starting at 1. +So "da0__s1__" is the first slice on the first SCSI drive. +There can only be four physical slices on a disk, but there can be logical slices inside physical slices of the appropriate type. +These extended slices are numbered starting at 5, so "ada0__s5__" is the first extended slice on the first SATA disk. +These devices are used by file systems that expect to occupy a slice. + +Each GPT or BSD partition can contain only one file system, which means that file systems are often described by either their typical mount point in the file system hierarchy, or the name of the partition they are contained in. FreeBSD also uses disk space for _swap space_ to provide _virtual memory_. This allows your computer to behave as though it has much more memory than it actually does. When FreeBSD runs out of memory, it moves some of the data that is not currently being used to the swap space, and moves it back in (moving something else out) when it needs it. +This is called _paging_. -Some partitions have certain conventions associated with them. +Some BSD partitions have certain conventions associated with them. -[.informaltable] -[cols="1,1", frame="none", options="header"] +[cols="25h,~"] |=== | Partition | Convention @@ -1209,30 +1315,25 @@ Some partitions have certain conventions associated with them. |Partition `d` used to have a special meaning associated with it, although that is now gone and `d` may work as any normal partition. |=== -Disks in FreeBSD are divided into slices, referred to in Windows(R) as partitions, which are numbered from 1 to 4. -These are then divided into partitions, which contain file systems, and are labeled using letters. - -Slice numbers follow the device name, prefixed with an `s`, starting at 1. -So "da0__s1__" is the first slice on the first SCSI drive. -There can only be four physical slices on a disk, but there can be logical slices inside physical slices of the appropriate type. -These extended slices are numbered starting at 5, so "ada0__s5__" is the first extended slice on the first SATA disk. -These devices are used by file systems that expect to occupy a slice. - -Slices, "dangerously dedicated" physical drives, and other drives contain _partitions_, which are represented as letters from `a` to `h`. +Slices and "dangerously dedicated" physical drives contain BSD partitions, which are represented as letters from `a` to `h`. This letter is appended to the device name, so "da0__a__" is the `a` partition on the first `da` drive, which is "dangerously dedicated". "ada1s3__e__" is the fifth partition in the third slice of the second SATA disk drive. Finally, each disk on the system is identified. A disk name starts with a code that indicates the type of disk, and then a number, indicating which disk it is. -Unlike slices, disk numbering starts at 0. -Common codes are listed in <<disks-naming>>. +Unlike partitions and slices, disk numbering starts at 0. +Common codes are listed in crossref:basics[disks-naming,Disk Device Names]. -When referring to a partition, include the disk name, `s`, the slice number, and then the partition letter. -Examples are shown in <<basics-disk-slice-part>>. +When referring to a partition in a slice, include the disk name, `s`, the slice number, and then the partition letter. +Examples are shown in crossref:basics[basics-disk-slice-part,Sample Disk, Slice, and Partition Names]. +GPT partitions include the disk name, `p`, and then the partition number. -<<basics-concept-disk-model>> shows a conceptual model of a disk layout. +crossref:basics[basics-concept-disk-model,Conceptual Model of a Disk] shows a conceptual model of a disk layout using MBR slices. -When installing FreeBSD, configure the disk slices, create partitions within the slice to be used for FreeBSD, create a file system or swap space in each partition, and decide where each file system will be mounted. +When installing FreeBSD, configure the disk slices if using MBR, and create partitions within the slice to be used for FreeBSD. +If using GPT, configure partitions for each file system. +In either case, create a file system or swap space in each partition, and decide where each file system will be mounted. +See man:gpart[8] for information on manipulating partitions. [[disks-naming]] .Disk Device Names @@ -1253,7 +1354,7 @@ When installing FreeBSD, configure the disk slices, create partitions within the |SATA and IDE CD-ROM drives |`cd` -|SCSICD-ROM drives +|SCSI CD-ROM drives |`cd` |Floppy drives @@ -1290,31 +1391,31 @@ When installing FreeBSD, configure the disk slices, create partitions within the ==== This diagram shows FreeBSD's view of the first SATA disk attached to the system. Assume that the disk is 250 GB in size, and contains an 80 GB slice and a 170 GB slice (MS-DOS(R) partitions). -The first slice contains a Windows(R) NTFS file system, [.filename]#C:#, and the second slice contains a FreeBSD installation. +The first slice contains a Windows(R) NTFS file system, `C:`, and the second slice contains a FreeBSD installation. This example FreeBSD installation has four data partitions and a swap partition. The four partitions each hold a file system. -Partition `a` is used for the root file system, `d` for [.filename]#/var/#, `e` for [.filename]#/tmp/#, and `f` for [.filename]#/usr/#. +Partition `a` is used for the root file system, `d` for `/var/`, `e` for `/tmp/`, and `f` for `/usr/`. Partition letter `c` refers to the entire slice, and so is not used for ordinary partitions. -image::disk-layout.png[] +image::disk-layout.png[Layout of a shared drive between Windows and FreeBSD] ==== [[mount-unmount]] == Mounting and Unmounting File Systems -The file system is best visualized as a tree, rooted, as it were, at [.filename]#/#. [.filename]#/dev#, [.filename]#/usr#, and the other directories in the root directory are branches, which may have their own branches, such as [.filename]#/usr/local#, and so on. +The file system is best visualized as a tree, rooted, as it were, at `/`. `/dev`, `/usr`, and the other directories in the root directory are branches, which may have their own branches, such as `/usr/local`, and so on. There are various reasons to house some of these directories on separate file systems. -[.filename]#/var# contains the directories [.filename]#log/#, [.filename]#spool/#, and various types of temporary files, and as such, may get filled up. -Filling up the root file system is not a good idea, so splitting [.filename]#/var# from [.filename]#/# is often favorable. +`/var` contains the directories `log/`, `spool/`, and various types of temporary files, and as such, may get filled up. +Filling up the root file system is not a good idea, so splitting `/var` from `/` is often favorable. Another common reason to contain certain directory trees on other file systems is if they are to be housed on separate physical disks, or are separate virtual disks, such as Network File System mounts, described in crossref:network-servers[network-nfs,“Network File System (NFS)”], or CDROM drives. [[disks-fstab]] -=== The [.filename]#fstab# File +=== The fstab File -During the boot process (crossref:boot[boot,The FreeBSD Booting Process]), file systems listed in [.filename]#/etc/fstab# are automatically mounted except for the entries containing `noauto`. +During the boot process (crossref:boot[boot,The FreeBSD Booting Process]), file systems listed in `/etc/fstab` are automatically mounted except for the entries containing `noauto`. This file contains entries in the following format: [.programlisting] @@ -1323,7 +1424,7 @@ device /mount-point fstype options dumpfreq passno .... `device`:: -An existing device name as explained in <<disks-naming>>. +An existing device name as explained in crossref:basics[disks-naming,Disk Device Names]. `mount-point`:: An existing directory on which to mount the file system. @@ -1342,13 +1443,13 @@ Used by man:dump[8] to determine which file systems require dumping. If the field is missing, a value of zero is assumed. `passno`:: -Determines the order in which file systems should be checked. +Determines the order in which UFS file systems should be checked by man:fsck[8] after a reboot. File systems that should be skipped should have their `passno` set to zero. The root file system needs to be checked before everything else and should have its `passno` set to one. The other file systems should be set to values greater than one. If more than one file system has the same `passno`, man:fsck[8] will attempt to check file systems in parallel if possible. -Refer to man:fstab[5] for more information on the format of [.filename]#/etc/fstab# and its options. +Refer to man:fstab[5] for more information on the format of `/etc/fstab` and its options. [[disks-mount]] === Using man:mount[8] @@ -1364,11 +1465,14 @@ The most basic syntax is as follows: .... ==== -This command provides many options which are described in man:mount[8], The most commonly used options include: +A file system listed in `/etc/fstab` can also be mounted by providing just the mountpoint. + +This command provides many options which are described in man:mount[8]. +The most commonly used options include: .Mount Options `-a`:: -Mount all the file systems listed in [.filename]#/etc/fstab#, except those marked as "noauto", excluded by the `-t` flag, or those that are already mounted. +Mount all the file systems listed in `/etc/fstab`, except those marked as "noauto", excluded by the `-t` flag, or those that are already mounted. `-d`:: Do everything except for the actual mount system call. @@ -1450,6 +1554,12 @@ For example: [source,shell] .... % ps +.... + +The output should be similar to the following: + +[.programlisting] +.... PID TT STAT TIME COMMAND 8203 0 Ss 0:00.59 /bin/csh 8895 0 R+ 0:00.00 ps @@ -1472,6 +1582,12 @@ The output from man:top[1] is similar: [source,shell] .... % top +.... + +The output should be similar to the following: + +[.programlisting] +.... last pid: 9609; load averages: 0.56, 0.45, 0.36 up 0+00:20:03 10:21:46 107 processes: 2 running, 104 sleeping, 1 zombie CPU: 6.2% user, 0.1% nice, 8.2% system, 0.4% interrupt, 85.1% idle @@ -1533,46 +1649,6 @@ Restarting `httpd` would result in a brief outage period on the web server. Instead, send the daemon the `SIGHUP` signal. Be aware that different daemons will have different behavior, so refer to the documentation for the daemon to determine if `SIGHUP` will achieve the desired results. -[.procedure] -**** -.Procedure: Sending a Signal to a Process - -This example shows how to send a signal to man:inetd[8]. -The man:inetd[8] configuration file is [.filename]#/etc/inetd.conf#, and man:inetd[8] will re-read this configuration file when it is sent a `SIGHUP`. - -. Find the PID of the process to send the signal to using man:pgrep[1]. In this example, the PID for man:inetd[8] is 198: -+ -[source,shell] -.... -% pgrep -l inetd -198 inetd -.... -+ -. Use man:kill[1] to send the signal. As man:inetd[8] is owned by `root`, use man:su[1] to become `root` first. -+ -[source,shell] -.... -% su -Password: -# /bin/kill -s HUP 198 -.... - -Like most UNIX(R) commands, man:kill[1] will not print any output if it is successful. -If a signal is sent to a process not owned by that user, the message `kill: _PID_: Operation not permitted` will be displayed. -Mistyping the PID will either send the signal to the wrong process, which could have negative results, or will send the signal to a PID that is not currently in use, resulting in the error `kill: _PID_: No such process`. - -[NOTE] -==== -*Why Use `/bin/kill`?:* + - -Many shells provide `kill` as a built in command, meaning that the shell will send the signal directly, rather than running [.filename]#/bin/kill#. -Be aware that different shells have a different syntax for specifying the name of the signal to send. -Rather than try to learn all of them, it can be simpler to specify `/bin/kill`. -==== -**** - -When sending other signals, substitute `TERM` or `KILL` with the name of the signal. - [IMPORTANT] ==== Killing a random process on the system is a bad idea. @@ -1596,12 +1672,12 @@ A Linux(R) user might prefer `bash`. Each shell has unique properties that may or may not work with a user's preferred working environment, which is why there is a choice of which shell to use. One common shell feature is filename completion. -After a user types the first few letters of a command or filename and presses kbd:[Tab], the shell completes the rest of the command or filename. -Consider two files called [.filename]#foobar# and [.filename]#football#. -To delete [.filename]#foobar#, the user might type `rm foo` and press kbd:[Tab] to complete the filename. +After a user types the first few letters of a command or filename and presses kbd:[Tab], the shell completes the rest of the command or filename. +Consider two files called `foobar` and `football`. +To delete `foobar`, the user might type `rm foo` and press kbd:[Tab] to complete the filename. But the shell only shows `rm foo`. -It was unable to complete the filename because both [.filename]#foobar# and [.filename]#football# start with `foo`. +It was unable to complete the filename because both `foobar` and `football` start with `foo`. Some shells sound a beep or show all the choices if more than one name matches. The user must then type more characters to identify the desired filename. Typing a `t` and pressing kbd:[Tab] again is enough to let the shell determine which filename is desired and fill in the rest. @@ -1609,12 +1685,12 @@ Typing a `t` and pressing kbd:[Tab] again is enough to let the shell determine w Another feature of the shell is the use of environment variables. Environment variables are a variable/key pair stored in the shell's environment. This environment can be read by any program invoked by the shell, and thus contains a lot of program configuration. -<<shell-env-vars>> provides a list of common environment variables and their meanings. +crossref:basics[shell-env-vars,Common Environment Variables] provides a list of common environment variables and their meanings. Note that the names of environment variables are always in uppercase. [[shell-env-vars]] .Common Environment Variables -[cols="1,1", frame="none", options="header"] +[cols="25h,~"] |=== | Variable | Description @@ -1656,7 +1732,7 @@ Note that the names of environment variables are always in uppercase. How to set an environment variable differs between shells. In man:tcsh[1] and man:csh[1], use `setenv` to set environment variables. In man:sh[1] and `bash`, use `export` to set the current environment variables. -This example sets the default `EDITOR` to [.filename]#/usr/local/bin/emacs# for the man:tcsh[1] shell: +This example sets the default `EDITOR` to `/usr/local/bin/emacs` for the man:tcsh[1] shell: [source,shell] .... @@ -1696,9 +1772,12 @@ For example, to change the shell to `bash`: % chsh -s /usr/local/bin/bash .... +Enter your password at the prompt and press kbd:[Return] to change your shell. +Log off and log in again to start using the new shell. + [NOTE] ==== -The new shell _must_ be present in [.filename]#/etc/shells#. +The new shell _must_ be present in `/etc/shells`. If the shell was installed from the FreeBSD Ports Collection as described in crossref:ports[ports,Installing Applications: Packages and Ports], it should be automatically added to this file. If it is missing, add it using this command, replacing the path with the path of the shell: @@ -1723,7 +1802,7 @@ To capture the output of the man:ls[1] command, for example, into a file, redire % ls > directory_listing.txt .... -The directory contents will now be listed in [.filename]#directory_listing.txt#. +The directory contents will now be listed in `directory_listing.txt`. Some commands can be used to read input, such as man:sort[1]. To sort this listing, redirect the input: @@ -1747,7 +1826,7 @@ Output could be a screen or paper in a printer. And error would be anything that is used for diagnostic or error messages. All three are considered I/O based file descriptors and sometimes considered streams. -Through the use of these descriptors, the shell allows output and input to be passed around through various commands and redirected to or from a file. +Through the use of these descriptors, the shell allows output and input to be passed around through various commands and redirected to or from a file. Another method of redirection is the pipe operator. The UNIX(R) pipe operator, "|" allows the output of one command to be directly passed or directed to another program. @@ -1758,7 +1837,7 @@ Basically, a pipe allows the standard output of a command to be passed as standa % cat directory_listing.txt | sort | less .... -In that example, the contents of [.filename]#directory_listing.txt# will be sorted and the output passed to man:less[1]. +In that example, the contents of `directory_listing.txt` will be sorted and the output passed to man:less[1]. This allows the user to scroll through the output at their own pace and prevent it from scrolling off the screen. [[editors]] @@ -1780,19 +1859,20 @@ These editors offer more functionality at the expense of being more complicated Learning a more powerful editor such as vim or Emacs can save more time in the long run. Many applications which modify files or require typed input will automatically open a text editor. -To change the default editor, set the `EDITOR` environment variable as described in <<shells>>. +To change the default editor, set the `EDITOR` environment variable as described +in crossref:basics[shells, Shells]. [[basics-devices]] == Devices and Device Nodes A device is a term used mostly for hardware-related activities in a system, including disks, printers, graphics cards, and keyboards. When FreeBSD boots, the majority of the boot messages refer to devices being detected. -A copy of the boot messages are saved to [.filename]#/var/run/dmesg.boot#. +A copy of the boot messages is saved to `/var/run/dmesg.boot`. Each device has a device name and number. -For example, [.filename]#ada0# is the first SATA hard drive, while [.filename]#kbd0# represents the keyboard. +For example, `ada0` is the first SATA hard drive, while `kbd0` represents the keyboard. -Most devices in FreeBSD must be accessed through special files called device nodes, which are located in [.filename]#/dev#. +Most devices in FreeBSD must be accessed through special files called device nodes, which are located in `/dev`. [[basics-more-information]] == Manual Pages @@ -1849,7 +1929,7 @@ If the name of the manual page is unknown, use `man -k` to search for keywords i This command displays a list of commands that have the keyword "mail" in their descriptions. This is equivalent to using man:apropos[1]. -To read the descriptions for all of the commands in [.filename]#/usr/sbin#, type: +To read the descriptions for all of the commands in `/usr/sbin`, type: [source,shell] .... diff --git a/documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.po b/documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.po new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..8c7298de08 --- /dev/null +++ b/documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.po @@ -0,0 +1,4555 @@ +# SOME DESCRIPTIVE TITLE +# Copyright (C) YEAR The FreeBSD Project +# This file is distributed under the same license as the FreeBSD Documentation package. +# FIRST AUTHOR <EMAIL@ADDRESS>, YEAR. +# +#, fuzzy +msgid "" +msgstr "" +"Project-Id-Version: FreeBSD Documentation VERSION\n" +"POT-Creation-Date: 2025-05-01 19:56-0300\n" +"PO-Revision-Date: YEAR-MO-DA HO:MI+ZONE\n" +"Last-Translator: FULL NAME <EMAIL@ADDRESS>\n" +"Language-Team: LANGUAGE <LL@li.org>\n" +"Language: \n" +"MIME-Version: 1.0\n" +"Content-Type: text/plain; charset=UTF-8\n" +"Content-Transfer-Encoding: 8bit\n" + +#. type: YAML Front Matter: description +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Basic commands and functionality of the FreeBSD operating system" +msgstr "" + +#. type: YAML Front Matter: part +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Part I. Getting Started" +msgstr "" + +#. type: YAML Front Matter: title +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Chapter 3. FreeBSD Basics" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title = +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:15 +#, no-wrap +msgid "FreeBSD Basics" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title == +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:53 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Synopsis" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:58 +msgid "" +"This chapter covers the basic commands and functionality of the FreeBSD " +"operating system. Much of this material is relevant for any UNIX(R)-like " +"operating system. New FreeBSD users are encouraged to read through this " +"chapter carefully." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:60 +msgid "After reading this chapter, you will know:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:62 +msgid "How to use and configure virtual consoles." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:63 +msgid "How to create and manage users and groups on FreeBSD." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:64 +msgid "How UNIX(R) file permissions and FreeBSD file flags work." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:65 +msgid "The default FreeBSD file system layout." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:66 +msgid "The FreeBSD disk organization." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:67 +msgid "How to mount and unmount file systems." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:68 +msgid "What processes, daemons, and signals are." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:69 +msgid "What a shell is, and how to change the default login environment." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:70 +msgid "How to use basic text editors." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:71 +msgid "What devices and device nodes are." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:72 +msgid "How to read manual pages for more information." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title == +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:74 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Virtual Consoles and Terminals" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:77 +msgid "" +"Unless FreeBSD has been configured to automatically start a graphical " +"environment during startup, the system will boot into a command line login " +"prompt, as seen in this example:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:81 +#, no-wrap +msgid "FreeBSD/amd64 (pc3.example.org) (ttyv0)\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:83 +#, no-wrap +msgid "login:\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:89 +msgid "" +"The first line contains some information about the system. The `amd64` " +"indicates that FreeBSD is running on a 64-bit x86 system. The hostname is " +"`pc3.example.org`, and `ttyv0` indicates that this is the \"system " +"console\". The second line is the login prompt." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:93 +msgid "" +"Since FreeBSD is a multiuser system, it needs some way to distinguish " +"between different users. This is accomplished by requiring every user to " +"log into the system before gaining access to the programs on the system. " +"Every user has a unique \"username\" and a personal \"password\"." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:97 +msgid "" +"To log into the system console, type the username that was configured during " +"system installation, as described in crossref:bsdinstall[bsdinstall-" +"addusers,Add Users], and press kbd:[Enter]. Then enter the password " +"associated with the username and press kbd:[Enter]. The password is _not " +"echoed_ for security reasons." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:101 +msgid "" +"Once the correct password is input, the message of the day (MOTD) will be " +"displayed followed by a command prompt. Depending upon the shell that was " +"selected when the user was created, this prompt will be a `+#+`, `$`, or `%` " +"character. The prompt indicates that the user is now logged into the " +"FreeBSD system console and ready to try the available commands." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title === +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:103 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Virtual Consoles" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:108 +msgid "" +"While the system console can be used to interact with the system, a user " +"working from the command line at the keyboard of a FreeBSD system will " +"typically instead log into a virtual console. This is because system " +"messages are configured by default to display on the system console. These " +"messages will appear over the command or file that the user is working on, " +"making it difficult to concentrate on the work at hand." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:112 +msgid "" +"By default, FreeBSD is configured to provide several virtual consoles for " +"inputting commands. Each virtual console has its own login prompt and shell " +"and it is easy to switch between virtual consoles. This essentially " +"provides the command line equivalent of having several windows open at the " +"same time in a graphical environment." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:116 +msgid "" +"The key combinations kbd:[Alt+F1] through kbd:[Alt+F8] have been reserved by " +"FreeBSD for switching between virtual consoles. Use kbd:[Alt+F1] to switch " +"to the system console (`ttyv0`), kbd:[Alt+F2] to access the first virtual " +"console (`ttyv1`), kbd:[Alt+F3] to access the second virtual console " +"(`ttyv2`), and so on. When using Xorg as a graphical console, the " +"combination becomes kbd:[Ctrl+Alt+F1] to return to a text-based virtual " +"console." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:120 +msgid "" +"When switching from one console to the next, FreeBSD manages the screen " +"output. The result is an illusion of having multiple virtual screens and " +"keyboards that can be used to type commands for FreeBSD to run. The " +"programs that are launched in one virtual console do not stop running when " +"the user switches to a different virtual console." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:122 +msgid "" +"Refer to man:kbdcontrol[1], man:vidcontrol[1], man:atkbd[4], man:syscons[4], " +"and man:vt[4] for a more technical description of the FreeBSD console and " +"its keyboard drivers." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:124 +msgid "" +"In FreeBSD, the number of available virtual consoles is configured in this " +"section of `/etc/ttys`:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:139 +#, no-wrap +msgid "" +"# name getty type status comments\n" +"#\n" +"ttyv0 \"/usr/libexec/getty Pc\" xterm on secure\n" +"# Virtual terminals\n" +"ttyv1 \"/usr/libexec/getty Pc\" xterm on secure\n" +"ttyv2 \"/usr/libexec/getty Pc\" xterm on secure\n" +"ttyv3 \"/usr/libexec/getty Pc\" xterm on secure\n" +"ttyv4 \"/usr/libexec/getty Pc\" xterm on secure\n" +"ttyv5 \"/usr/libexec/getty Pc\" xterm on secure\n" +"ttyv6 \"/usr/libexec/getty Pc\" xterm on secure\n" +"ttyv7 \"/usr/libexec/getty Pc\" xterm on secure\n" +"ttyv8 \"/usr/X11R6/bin/xdm -nodaemon\" xterm off secure\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:145 +msgid "" +"To disable a virtual console, put a comment symbol (`+#+`) at the beginning " +"of the line representing that virtual console. For example, to reduce the " +"number of available virtual consoles from eight to four, put a `+#+` in " +"front of the last four lines representing virtual consoles `ttyv5` through " +"`ttyv8`. _Do not_ comment out the line for the system console `ttyv0`. " +"Note that the last virtual console (`ttyv8`) is used to access the graphical " +"environment if Xorg has been installed and configured as described in " +"crossref:x11[x11,The X Window System]." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:147 +msgid "" +"For a detailed description of every column in this file and the available " +"options for the virtual consoles, refer to man:ttys[5]." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title === +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:149 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Single User Mode" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:157 +msgid "" +"The FreeBSD boot menu provides an option labelled as \"Boot Single User\". " +"If this option is selected, the system will boot into a special mode known " +"as \"single user mode\". This mode is typically used to repair a system " +"that will not boot or to reset the `root` password when it is not known. " +"While in single user mode, networking and other virtual consoles are not " +"available. However, full `root` access to the system is available, and by " +"default, the `root` password is not needed. For these reasons, physical " +"access to the keyboard is needed to boot into this mode and determining who " +"has physical access to the keyboard is something to consider when securing a " +"FreeBSD system." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:159 +msgid "" +"The settings which control single user mode are found in this section of `/" +"etc/ttys`:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:167 +#, no-wrap +msgid "" +"# name getty type status comments\n" +"#\n" +"# If console is marked \"insecure\", then init will ask for the root password\n" +"# when going to single-user mode.\n" +"console none unknown off secure\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:173 +msgid "" +"By default, the status is set to `secure`. This assumes that who has " +"physical access to the keyboard is either not important or it is controlled " +"by a physical security policy. If this setting is changed to `insecure`, " +"the assumption is that the environment itself is insecure because anyone can " +"access the keyboard. When this line is changed to `insecure`, FreeBSD will " +"prompt for the `root` password when a user selects to boot into single user " +"mode." +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:177 +msgid "" +"_Be careful when changing this setting to `insecure`!_ If the `root` " +"password is forgotten, booting into single user mode is still possible, but " +"may be difficult for someone who is not familiar with the FreeBSD booting " +"process." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title === +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:180 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Changing Console Video Modes" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:184 +msgid "" +"The FreeBSD console default video mode may be adjusted to 1024x768, " +"1280x1024, or any other size supported by the graphics chip and monitor. To " +"use a different video mode load the `VESA` module:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:188 +#, no-wrap +msgid "# kldload vesa\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:192 +msgid "" +"To determine which video modes are supported by the hardware, use " +"man:vidcontrol[1]. To get a list of supported video modes issue the " +"following:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:196 +#, no-wrap +msgid "# vidcontrol -i mode\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:200 +msgid "" +"The output of this command lists the video modes that are supported by the " +"hardware. To select a new video mode, specify the mode using " +"man:vidcontrol[1] as the `root` user:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:204 +#, no-wrap +msgid "# vidcontrol MODE_279\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:207 +msgid "" +"If the new video mode is acceptable, it can be permanently set on boot by " +"adding it to `/etc/rc.conf`:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:211 +#, no-wrap +msgid "allscreens_flags=\"MODE_279\"\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title == +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:214 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Users and Basic Account Management" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:219 +msgid "" +"FreeBSD allows multiple users to use the computer at the same time. While " +"only one user can sit in front of the screen and use the keyboard at any one " +"time, any number of users can log in to the system through the network. To " +"use the system, each user should have their own user account." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:221 +msgid "This chapter describes:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:223 +msgid "The different types of user accounts on a FreeBSD system." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:224 +msgid "How to add, remove, and modify user accounts." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:225 +msgid "" +"How to set limits to control the resources that users and groups are allowed " +"to access." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:226 +msgid "How to create groups and add users as members of a group." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title === +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:228 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Account Types" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:231 +msgid "" +"Since all access to the FreeBSD system is achieved using accounts and all " +"processes are run by users, user and account management is important." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:233 +msgid "" +"There are three main types of accounts: system accounts, user accounts, and " +"the superuser account." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title ==== +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:235 +#, no-wrap +msgid "System Accounts" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:239 +msgid "" +"System accounts are used to run services such as DNS, mail, and web " +"servers. The reason for this is security; if all services ran as the " +"superuser, they could act without restriction." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:241 +msgid "" +"Examples of system accounts are `daemon`, `operator`, `bind`, `news`, and " +"`www`." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:244 +msgid "" +"`nobody` is the generic unprivileged system account. However, the more " +"services that use `nobody`, the more files and processes that user will " +"become associated with, and hence the more privileged that user becomes." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title ==== +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:246 +#, no-wrap +msgid "User Accounts" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:251 +msgid "" +"User accounts are assigned to real people and are used to log in and use the " +"system. Every person accessing the system should have a unique user " +"account. This allows the administrator to find out who is doing what and " +"prevents users from clobbering the settings of other users." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:253 +msgid "" +"Each user can set up their own environment to accommodate their use of the " +"system, by configuring their default shell, editor, key bindings, and " +"language settings." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:255 +msgid "" +"Every user account on a FreeBSD system has certain information associated " +"with it:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Labeled list +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:256 +#, no-wrap +msgid "User name" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:261 +msgid "" +"The user name is typed at the `login:` prompt. Each user must have a unique " +"user name. There are a number of rules for creating valid user names which " +"are documented in man:passwd[5]. It is recommended to use user names that " +"consist of eight or fewer, all lower case characters in order to maintain " +"backwards compatibility with applications." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Labeled list +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:262 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Password" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:264 +msgid "Each account has an associated password." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Labeled list +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:265 +#, no-wrap +msgid "User ID (UID)" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:269 +msgid "" +"The User ID (UID) is a number used to uniquely identify the user to the " +"FreeBSD system. Commands that allow a user name to be specified will first " +"convert it to the UID. It is recommended to use a UID less than 65535, " +"since higher values may cause compatibility issues with some software." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Labeled list +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:270 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Group ID (GID)" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:275 +msgid "" +"The Group ID (GID) is a number used to uniquely identify the primary group " +"that the user belongs to. Groups are a mechanism for controlling access to " +"resources based on a user's GID rather than their UID. This can " +"significantly reduce the size of some configuration files and allows users " +"to be members of more than one group. It is recommended to use a GID of " +"65535 or lower as higher GIDs may break some software." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Labeled list +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:276 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Login class" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:279 +msgid "" +"Login classes are an extension to the group mechanism that provide " +"additional flexibility when tailoring the system to different users. Login " +"classes are discussed further in crossref:security[users-" +"limiting,Configuring Login Classes]." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Labeled list +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:280 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Password change time" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:283 +msgid "" +"By default, passwords do not expire. However, password expiration can be " +"enabled on a per-user basis, forcing some or all users to change their " +"passwords after a certain amount of time has elapsed." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Labeled list +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:284 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Account expiration time" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:288 +msgid "" +"By default, FreeBSD does not expire accounts. When creating accounts that " +"need a limited lifespan, such as student accounts in a school, specify the " +"account expiry date using man:pw[8]. After the expiry time has elapsed, the " +"account cannot be used to log in to the system, although the account's " +"directories and files will remain." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Labeled list +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:289 +#, no-wrap +msgid "User's full name" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:292 +msgid "" +"The user name uniquely identifies the account to FreeBSD, but does not " +"necessarily reflect the user's real name. Similar to a comment, this " +"information can contain spaces, uppercase characters, and be more than 8 " +"characters long." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Labeled list +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:293 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Home directory" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:298 +msgid "" +"The home directory is the full path to a directory on the system. This is " +"the user's starting directory when the user logs in. A common convention is " +"to put all user home directories under `/home/username` or `/usr/home/" +"username`. Each user stores their personal files and subdirectories in " +"their own home directory." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Labeled list +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:299 +#, no-wrap +msgid "User shell" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:302 +msgid "" +"The shell provides the user's default environment for interacting with the " +"system. There are many different kinds of shells and experienced users will " +"have their own preferences, which can be reflected in their account settings." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title ==== +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:304 +#, no-wrap +msgid "The Superuser Account" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:308 +msgid "" +"The superuser account, usually called `root`, is used to manage the system " +"with no limitations on privileges. For this reason, it should not be used " +"for day-to-day tasks like sending and receiving mail, general exploration of " +"the system, or programming." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:311 +msgid "" +"The superuser, unlike other user accounts, can operate without limits, and " +"misuse of the superuser account may result in spectacular disasters. User " +"accounts are unable to destroy the operating system by mistake, so it is " +"recommended to login as a user account and to only become the superuser when " +"a command requires extra privilege." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:313 +msgid "" +"Always double and triple-check any commands issued as the superuser, since " +"an extra space or missing character can mean irreparable data loss." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:316 +msgid "" +"There are several ways to gain superuser privilege. While one can log in as " +"`root`, this is highly discouraged." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:321 +msgid "" +"Instead, use man:su[1] to become the superuser. If `-` is specified when " +"running this command, the user will also inherit the root user's " +"environment. The user running this command must be in the `wheel` group or " +"else the command will fail. The user must also know the password for the " +"`root` user account." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:324 +msgid "" +"In this example, the user only becomes superuser in order to run `make " +"install` as this step requires superuser privilege. Once the command " +"completes, the user types `exit` to leave the superuser account and return " +"to the privilege of their user account." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Block title +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:325 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Install a Program As the Superuser" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:337 +#, no-wrap +msgid "" +"% configure\n" +"% make\n" +"% su -\n" +"Password:\n" +"# make install\n" +"# exit\n" +"%\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:343 +msgid "" +"The built-in man:su[1] framework works well for single systems or small " +"networks with just one system administrator. An alternative is to install " +"the package:security/sudo[] package or port. This software provides " +"activity logging and allows the administrator to configure which users can " +"run which commands as the superuser." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title === +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:345 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Managing Accounts" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:351 +msgid "" +"FreeBSD provides a variety of different commands to manage user accounts. " +"The most common commands are summarized in crossref:basics[users-modifying-" +"utilities,Utilities for Managing User Accounts], followed by some examples " +"of their usage. See the manual page for each utility for more details and " +"usage examples." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Block title +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:353 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Utilities for Managing User Accounts" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:357 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Command" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:359 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Summary" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:360 +#, no-wrap +msgid "man:adduser[8]" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:362 +#, no-wrap +msgid "The recommended command-line application for adding new users." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:363 +#, no-wrap +msgid "man:rmuser[8]" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:365 +#, no-wrap +msgid "The recommended command-line application for removing users." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:366 +#, no-wrap +msgid "man:chpass[1]" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:368 +#, no-wrap +msgid "A flexible tool for changing user database information." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:369 +#, no-wrap +msgid "man:passwd[1]" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:371 +#, no-wrap +msgid "The command-line tool to change user passwords." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:372 +#, no-wrap +msgid "man:pw[8]" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:374 +#, no-wrap +msgid "A powerful and flexible tool for modifying all aspects of user accounts." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:375 +#, no-wrap +msgid "man:bsdconfig[8]" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:376 +#, no-wrap +msgid "A system configuration utility with account management support." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title ==== +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:379 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Adding a user" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:385 +msgid "" +"The recommended program for adding new users is man:adduser[8]. When a new " +"user is added, this program automatically updates `/etc/passwd` and `/etc/" +"group`. It also creates a home directory for the new user, copies in the " +"default configuration files from `/usr/share/skel`, and can optionally mail " +"the new user a welcome message. This utility must be run as the superuser." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:390 +msgid "" +"The man:adduser[8] utility is interactive and walks through the steps for " +"creating a new user account. As seen in crossref:basics[users-modifying-" +"adduser, Adding a User on FreeBSD], either input the required information or " +"press kbd:[Return] to accept the default value shown in square brackets. In " +"this example, the user has been invited into the `wheel` group, allowing " +"them to become the superuser with man:su[1]. When finished, the utility " +"will prompt to either create another user or to exit." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Block title +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:392 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Adding a User on FreeBSD" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:398 +#, no-wrap +msgid "# adduser\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:401 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:473 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:512 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:571 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:596 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:650 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:671 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:693 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:712 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:790 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1560 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1588 +msgid "The output should be similar to the following:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:432 +#, no-wrap +msgid "" +"Username: jru\n" +"Full name: J. Random User\n" +"Uid (Leave empty for default):\n" +"Login group [jru]:\n" +"Login group is jru. Invite jru into other groups? []: wheel\n" +"Login class [default]:\n" +"Shell (sh csh tcsh zsh nologin) [sh]: zsh\n" +"Home directory [/home/jru]:\n" +"Home directory permissions (Leave empty for default):\n" +"Use password-based authentication? [yes]:\n" +"Use an empty password? (yes/no) [no]:\n" +"Use a random password? (yes/no) [no]:\n" +"Enter password:\n" +"Enter password again:\n" +"Lock out the account after creation? [no]:\n" +"Username : jru\n" +"Password : ****\n" +"Full Name : J. Random User\n" +"Uid : 1001\n" +"Class :\n" +"Groups : jru wheel\n" +"Home : /home/jru\n" +"Shell : /usr/local/bin/zsh\n" +"Locked : no\n" +"OK? (yes/no): yes\n" +"adduser: INFO: Successfully added (jru) to the user database.\n" +"Add another user? (yes/no): no\n" +"Goodbye!\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:438 +msgid "" +"Since the password is not echoed when typed, be careful to not mistype the " +"password when creating the user account." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title ==== +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:441 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Removing a user" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:445 +msgid "" +"To completely remove a user from the system, run man:rmuser[8] as the " +"superuser. This command performs the following steps:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:449 +msgid "Removes the user's man:crontab[1] entry, if one exists." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:450 +msgid "Removes any man:at[1] jobs belonging to the user." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:451 +msgid "Sends a SIGKILL signal to all processes owned by the user." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:452 +msgid "Removes the user from the system's local password file." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:453 +msgid "" +"Removes the user's home directory (if it is owned by the user), including " +"handling of symbolic links in the path to the actual home directory." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:454 +msgid "Removes the incoming mail files belonging to the user from `/var/mail`." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:455 +msgid "" +"Removes all files owned by the user from `/tmp`, `/var/tmp`, and `/var/tmp/" +"vi.recover`." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:456 +msgid "" +"Removes the username from all groups to which it belongs in `/etc/group`. " +"(If a group becomes empty and the group name is the same as the username, " +"the group is removed; this complements man:adduser[8]'s per-user unique " +"groups.)" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:457 +msgid "" +"Removes all message queues, shared memory segments and semaphores owned by " +"the user." +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:460 +msgid "" +"man:rmuser[8] cannot be used to remove superuser accounts since that is " +"almost always an indication of massive destruction." +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:462 +msgid "" +"By default, an interactive mode is used, as shown in the following example." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Block title +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:463 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`rmuser` Interactive Account Removal" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:469 +#, no-wrap +msgid "# rmuser jru\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:481 +#, no-wrap +msgid "" +"Matching password entry:\n" +"jru:*:1001:1001::0:0:J. Random User:/home/jru:/usr/local/bin/zsh\n" +"Is this the entry you wish to remove? y\n" +"Remove user's home directory (/home/jru)? y\n" +"Removing user (jru): mailspool home passwd.\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title ==== +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:485 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Change user information" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:489 +msgid "" +"Any user can use man:chpass[1] to change their default shell and personal " +"information associated with their user account. The superuser can use this " +"utility to change additional account information for any user." +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:492 +msgid "" +"When passed no options, aside from an optional username, man:chpass[1] " +"displays an editor containing user information. When the user exits from " +"the editor, the user database is updated with the new information." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:496 +msgid "" +"This utility will prompt for the user's password when exiting the editor, " +"unless the utility is run as the superuser." +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:501 +msgid "" +"In crossref:basics[users-modifying-chpass-su,Using `chpass` as Superuser], " +"the superuser has typed `chpass jru` and is now viewing the fields that can " +"be changed for this user. If `jru` runs this command instead, only the last " +"six fields will be displayed and available for editing. This is shown in " +"crossref:basics[users-modifying-chpass-ru,Using `chpass` as Regular User]." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Block title +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:503 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Using `chpass` as Superuser" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:509 +#, no-wrap +msgid "# chpass jru\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:530 +#, no-wrap +msgid "" +"# Changing user database information for jru.\n" +"Login: jru\n" +"Password: *\n" +"Uid [#]: 1001\n" +"Gid [# or name]: 1001\n" +"Change [month day year]:\n" +"Expire [month day year]:\n" +"Class:\n" +"Home directory: /home/jru\n" +"Shell: /usr/local/bin/zsh\n" +"Full Name: J. Random User\n" +"Office Location:\n" +"Office Phone:\n" +"Home Phone:\n" +"Other information:\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Block title +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:534 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Using `chpass` as Regular User" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:546 +#, no-wrap +msgid "" +"#Changing user database information for jru.\n" +"Shell: /usr/local/bin/zsh\n" +"Full Name: J. Random User\n" +"Office Location:\n" +"Office Phone:\n" +"Home Phone:\n" +"Other information:\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:554 +msgid "" +"The commands man:chfn[1] and man:chsh[1] are links to man:chpass[1], as are " +"man:ypchpass[1], man:ypchfn[1], and man:ypchsh[1]. Since NIS support is " +"automatic, specifying the `yp` before the command is not necessary. How to " +"configure NIS is covered in crossref:network-servers[network-servers,Network " +"Servers]." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title ==== +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:557 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Change user password" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:561 +msgid "" +"Any user can easily change their password using man:passwd[1]. To prevent " +"accidental or unauthorized changes, this command will prompt for the user's " +"original password before a new password can be set:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Block title +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:562 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Changing Your Password" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:568 +#, no-wrap +msgid "% passwd\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:580 +#, no-wrap +msgid "" +"Changing local password for jru.\n" +"Old password:\n" +"New password:\n" +"Retype new password:\n" +"passwd: updating the database...\n" +"passwd: done\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:586 +msgid "" +"The superuser can change any user's password by specifying the username when " +"running man:passwd[1]. When this utility is run as the superuser, it will " +"not prompt for the user's current password. This allows the password to be " +"changed when a user cannot remember the original password." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Block title +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:587 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Changing Another User's Password as the Superuser" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:593 +#, no-wrap +msgid "# passwd jru\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:604 +#, no-wrap +msgid "" +"Changing local password for jru.\n" +"New password:\n" +"Retype new password:\n" +"passwd: updating the database...\n" +"passwd: done\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:610 +msgid "" +"As with man:chpass[1], man:yppasswd[1] is a link to man:passwd[1], so NIS " +"works with either command." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title ==== +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:613 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Create, remove, modify and display system users and groups" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:618 +msgid "" +"The man:pw[8] utility can create, remove, modify, and display users and " +"groups. It functions as a front end to the system user and group files. " +"man:pw[8] has a very powerful set of command line options that make it " +"suitable for use in shell scripts, but new users may find it more " +"complicated than the other commands presented in this section." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title === +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:620 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Managing Groups" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:625 +msgid "" +"A group is a list of users. A group is identified by its group name and " +"GID. In FreeBSD, the kernel uses the UID of a process, and the list of " +"groups it belongs to, to determine what the process is allowed to do. Most " +"of the time, the GID of a user or process usually means the first group in " +"the list." +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:630 +msgid "" +"The group name to GID mapping is listed in `/etc/group`. This is a plain " +"text file with four colon-delimited fields. The first field is the group " +"name, the second is the encrypted password, the third the GID, and the " +"fourth the comma-delimited list of members. For a complete description of " +"the syntax, refer to man:group[5]." +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:634 +msgid "" +"The superuser can modify `/etc/group` using a text editor, although editing " +"the group file using man:vigr[8] is preferred because it can catch some " +"common mistakes. Alternatively, man:pw[8] can be used to add and edit " +"groups. For example, to add a group called `teamtwo` and then confirm that " +"it exists:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:638 +msgid "" +"Care must be taken when using the operator group, as unintended superuser-" +"like access privileges may be granted, including but not limited to " +"shutdown, reboot, and access to all items in `/dev` in the group." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Block title +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:640 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Adding a Group Using man:pw[8]" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:647 +#, no-wrap +msgid "" +"# pw groupadd teamtwo\n" +"# pw groupshow teamtwo\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:654 +#, no-wrap +msgid "teamtwo:*:1100:\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:660 +msgid "" +"In this example, `1100` is the GID of `teamtwo`. Right now, `teamtwo` has " +"no members. This command will add `jru` as a member of `teamtwo`." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Block title +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:661 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Adding User Accounts to a New Group Using man:pw[8]" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:668 +#, no-wrap +msgid "" +"# pw groupmod teamtwo -M jru\n" +"# pw groupshow teamtwo\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:675 +#, no-wrap +msgid "teamtwo:*:1100:jru\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:682 +msgid "" +"The argument to `-M` is a comma-delimited list of users to be added to a new " +"(empty) group or to replace the members of an existing group. To the user, " +"this group membership is different from (and in addition to) the user's " +"primary group listed in the password file. This means that the user will " +"not show up as a member when using `groupshow` with man:pw[8], but will show " +"up when the information is queried via man:id[1] or a similar tool. When " +"man:pw[8] is used to add a user to a group, it only manipulates `/etc/group` " +"and does not attempt to read additional data from `/etc/passwd`." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Block title +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:683 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Adding a New Member to a Group Using man:pw[8]" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:690 +#, no-wrap +msgid "" +"# pw groupmod teamtwo -m db\n" +"# pw groupshow teamtwo\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:697 +#, no-wrap +msgid "teamtwo:*:1100:jru,db\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:702 +msgid "" +"In this example, the argument to `-m` is a comma-delimited list of users who " +"are to be added to the group. Unlike the previous example, these users are " +"appended to the group and do not replace existing users in the group." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Block title +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:703 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Using man:id[1] to Determine Group Membership" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:709 +#, no-wrap +msgid "% id jru\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:716 +#, no-wrap +msgid "uid=1001(jru) gid=1001(jru) groups=1001(jru), 1100(teamtwo)\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:720 +msgid "In this example, `jru` is a member of the groups `jru` and `teamtwo`." +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:722 +msgid "" +"For more information about this command and the format of `/etc/group`, " +"refer to man:pw[8] and man:group[5]." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title == +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:724 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Permissions" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:728 +msgid "" +"In FreeBSD, every file and directory has an associated set of permissions " +"and several utilities are available for viewing and modifying these " +"permissions. Understanding how permissions work is necessary to make sure " +"that users are able to access the files that they need and are unable to " +"improperly access the files used by the operating system or owned by other " +"users." +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:731 +msgid "" +"This section discusses the traditional UNIX(R) permissions used in FreeBSD. " +"For finer-grained file system access control, refer to crossref:security[fs-" +"acl,Access Control Lists]." +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:737 +msgid "" +"In UNIX(R), basic permissions are assigned using three types of access: " +"read, write, and execute. These access types are used to determine file " +"access to the file's owner, group, and others (everyone else). The read, " +"write, and execute permissions can be represented as the letters `r`, `w`, " +"and `x`. They can also be represented as binary numbers as each permission " +"is either on or off (`0`). When represented as a number, the order is " +"always read as `rwx`, where `r` has an on value of `4`, `w` has an on value " +"of `2` and `x` has an on value of `1`." +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:740 +msgid "" +"Table 4.1 summarizes the possible numeric and alphabetic possibilities. " +"When reading the \"Directory Listing\" column, a `-` is used to represent a " +"permission that is set to off." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Block title +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:741 +#, no-wrap +msgid "UNIX(R) Permissions" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:745 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Value" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:746 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Permission" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:748 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Directory Listing" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:749 +#, no-wrap +msgid "0" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:750 +#, no-wrap +msgid "No read, no write, no execute" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:752 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`---`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:753 +#, no-wrap +msgid "1" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:754 +#, no-wrap +msgid "No read, no write, execute" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:756 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`--x`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:757 +#, no-wrap +msgid "2" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:758 +#, no-wrap +msgid "No read, write, no execute" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:760 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`-w-`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:761 +#, no-wrap +msgid "3" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:762 +#, no-wrap +msgid "No read, write, execute" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:764 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`-wx`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:765 +#, no-wrap +msgid "4" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:766 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Read, no write, no execute" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:768 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`r--`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:769 +#, no-wrap +msgid "5" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:770 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Read, no write, execute" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:772 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`r-x`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:773 +#, no-wrap +msgid "6" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:774 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Read, write, no execute" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:776 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`rw-`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:777 +#, no-wrap +msgid "7" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:778 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Read, write, execute" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:779 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`rwx`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:783 +msgid "" +"Use the `-l` argument with man:ls[1] to view a long directory listing that " +"includes a column of information about a file's permissions for the owner, " +"group, and everyone else. For example, `ls -l` in an arbitrary directory " +"may show:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:787 +#, no-wrap +msgid "% ls -l\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:797 +#, no-wrap +msgid "" +"total 530\n" +"-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 512 Sep 5 12:31 myfile\n" +"-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 512 Sep 5 12:31 otherfile\n" +"-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 7680 Sep 5 12:31 email.txt\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:807 +msgid "" +"Focusing on the line for `myfile`, the first `(leftmost)` character " +"indicates whether this file is a regular file, a directory, a special " +"character device, a socket, or any other special pseudo-file device. In " +"this example, the `-` indicates a regular file. The next three characters, " +"`rw-` in this example, give the permissions for the owner of the file. The " +"next three characters, `r--`, give the permissions for the group that the " +"file belongs to. The final three characters, `r--`, give the permissions " +"for the rest of the world. A dash means that the permission is turned off. " +"In this example, the permissions are set so the owner can read and write to " +"the file, the group can read the file, and the rest of the world can only " +"read the file. According to the table above, the permissions for this file " +"would be `644`, where each digit represents the three parts of the file's " +"permission." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:810 +msgid "" +"How does the system control permissions on devices? FreeBSD treats most " +"hardware devices as a file that programs can open, read, and write data to. " +"These special device files are stored in `/dev/`." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:816 +msgid "" +"Directories are also treated as files. They have read, write, and execute " +"permissions. The executable bit for a directory has a slightly different " +"meaning than that of files. When a directory is marked executable, it means " +"it is possible to change into that directory using man:cd[1]. This also " +"means that it is possible to access the files within that directory, subject " +"to the permissions on the files themselves." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:819 +msgid "" +"In order to perform a directory listing, the read permission must be set on " +"the directory. In order to delete a file that one knows the name of, it is " +"necessary to have write _and_ execute permissions to the directory " +"containing the file." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:822 +msgid "" +"There are more permission bits, but they are primarily used in special " +"circumstances such as setuid binaries and sticky directories. For more " +"information on file permissions and how to set them, refer to man:chmod[1]." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title === +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:823 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Symbolic Permissions" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:827 +msgid "" +"Symbolic permissions use characters instead of octal values to assign " +"permissions to files or directories. Symbolic permissions use the syntax of " +"(who) (action) (permissions), where the following values are available:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:832 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Option" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:833 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Letter" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:835 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Represents" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:836 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:840 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:844 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:848 +#, no-wrap +msgid "(who)" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:837 +#, no-wrap +msgid "u" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:839 +#, no-wrap +msgid "User" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:841 +#, no-wrap +msgid "g" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:843 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Group owner" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:845 +#, no-wrap +msgid "o" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:847 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Other" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:849 +#, no-wrap +msgid "a" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:851 +#, no-wrap +msgid "All (\"world\")" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:852 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:856 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:860 +#, no-wrap +msgid "(action)" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:853 +#, no-wrap +msgid "+" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:855 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Adding permissions" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:857 +#, no-wrap +msgid "-" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:859 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Removing permissions" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:861 +#, no-wrap +msgid "=" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:863 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Explicitly set permissions" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:864 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:868 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:872 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:876 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:880 +#, no-wrap +msgid "(permissions)" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:865 +#, no-wrap +msgid "r" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:867 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Read" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:869 +#, no-wrap +msgid "w" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:871 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Write" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:873 +#, no-wrap +msgid "x" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:875 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Execute" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:877 +#, no-wrap +msgid "t" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:879 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Sticky bit" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:881 +#, no-wrap +msgid "s" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:882 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Set UID or GID" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:886 +msgid "" +"These values are used with man:chmod[1], but with letters instead of " +"numbers. For example, the following command would block both members of the " +"group associated with _FILE_ and all other users from accessing _FILE_:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:890 +#, no-wrap +msgid "% chmod go= FILE\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:894 +msgid "" +"A comma separated list can be provided when more than one set of changes to " +"a file must be made. For example, the following command removes the group " +"and \"world\" write permission on _FILE_, and adds the execute permissions " +"for everyone:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:898 +#, no-wrap +msgid "% chmod go-w,a+x FILE\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title === +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:900 +#, no-wrap +msgid "FreeBSD File Flags" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:905 +msgid "" +"In addition to file permissions, FreeBSD supports the use of \"file " +"flags\". These flags add an additional level of security and control over " +"files, but not directories. With file flags, even `root` can be prevented " +"from removing or altering files." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:908 +msgid "" +"File flags are modified using man:chflags[1]. For example, to enable the " +"system undeletable flag on the file `file1`, issue the following command:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:912 +#, no-wrap +msgid "# chflags sunlink file1\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:915 +msgid "" +"To disable the system undeletable flag, put a \"no\" in front of the " +"`sunlink`:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:919 +#, no-wrap +msgid "# chflags nosunlink file1\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:922 +msgid "To view the flags of a file, use `-lo` with man:ls[1]:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:926 +#, no-wrap +msgid "# ls -lo file1\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:931 +#, no-wrap +msgid "-rw-r--r-- 1 trhodes trhodes sunlnk 0 Mar 1 05:54 file1\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:936 +msgid "" +"Several file flags may only be added or removed by the `root` user. In " +"other cases, the file owner may set its file flags. Refer to man:chflags[1] " +"and man:chflags[2] for more information." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title === +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:937 +#, no-wrap +msgid "The setuid, setgid, and sticky Permissions" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:941 +msgid "" +"Other than the permissions already discussed, there are three other specific " +"settings that all administrators should know about. They are the `setuid`, " +"`setgid`, and `sticky` permissions." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:944 +msgid "" +"These settings are important for some UNIX(R) operations as they provide " +"functionality not normally granted to normal users. To understand them, the " +"difference between the real user ID and effective user ID must be noted." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:950 +msgid "" +"The real user ID is the UID who owns or starts the process. The effective " +"UID is the user ID the process runs as. As an example, man:passwd[1] runs " +"with the real user ID when a user changes their password. However, in order " +"to update the password database, the command runs as the effective ID of the " +"`root` user. This allows users to change their passwords without seeing a " +"`Permission Denied` error." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:952 +msgid "" +"The setuid permission may be added symbolically by adding the `s` permission " +"for the user as in the following example:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:956 +#, no-wrap +msgid "# chmod u+s suidexample.sh\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:959 +msgid "" +"The setuid permission may also be set by prefixing a permission set with the " +"number four (4) as shown in the following example:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:963 +#, no-wrap +msgid "# chmod 4755 suidexample.sh\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:966 +msgid "The permissions on `suidexample.sh` now look like the following:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:970 +#, no-wrap +msgid "-rwsr-xr-x 1 trhodes trhodes 63 Aug 29 06:36 suidexample.sh\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:974 +msgid "" +"Note that a `s` is now part of the permission set designated for the file " +"owner, replacing the executable bit. This allows utilities which need " +"elevated permissions, such as man:passwd[1]." +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:979 +msgid "" +"The `nosuid` man:mount[8] option will cause such binaries to silently fail " +"without alerting the user. That option is not completely reliable as a " +"`nosuid` wrapper may be able to circumvent it." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:984 +msgid "" +"To view this in real time, open two terminals. On one, type `passwd` as a " +"normal user. While it waits for a new password, check the process table and " +"look at the user information for man:passwd[1]:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:986 +msgid "In terminal A:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:991 +#, no-wrap +msgid "" +"Changing local password for trhodes\n" +"Old Password:\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:994 +msgid "In terminal B:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:998 +#, no-wrap +msgid "# ps aux | grep passwd\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1004 +#, no-wrap +msgid "" +"trhodes 5232 0.0 0.2 3420 1608 0 R+ 2:10AM 0:00.00 grep passwd\n" +"root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 I+ 2:09AM 0:00.01 passwd\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1007 +msgid "" +"Although man:passwd[1] is run as a normal user, it is using the effective " +"UID of `root`." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1010 +msgid "" +"The `setgid` permission performs the same function as the `setuid` " +"permission; except that it alters the group settings. When an application " +"or utility executes with this setting, it will be granted the permissions " +"based on the group that owns the file, not the user who started the process." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1012 +msgid "" +"To set the `setgid` permission on a file symbolically, add the `s` " +"permission for the group with man:chmod[1]:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1016 +#, no-wrap +msgid "# chmod g+s sgidexample.sh\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1019 +msgid "Alternatively, provide man:chmod[1] with a leading two (2):" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1023 +#, no-wrap +msgid "# chmod 2755 sgidexample.sh\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1026 +msgid "" +"In the following listing, notice that the `s` is now in the field designated " +"for the group permission settings:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1030 +#, no-wrap +msgid "-rwxr-sr-x 1 trhodes trhodes 44 Aug 31 01:49 sgidexample.sh\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1036 +msgid "" +"In these examples, even though the shell script in question is an executable " +"file, it will not run with a different EUID or effective user ID. This is " +"because shell scripts may not access the man:setuid[2] system calls." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1040 +msgid "" +"The `setuid` and `setgid` permission bits may lower system security, by " +"allowing for elevated permissions. The third special permission, the " +"`sticky bit`, can strengthen the security of a system." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1044 +msgid "" +"When the `sticky bit` is set on a directory, it allows file deletion only by " +"the file owner. This is useful to prevent file deletion in public " +"directories, such as `/tmp`, by users who do not own the file. To utilize " +"this permission, add the `t` mode to the file:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1048 +#, no-wrap +msgid "# chmod +t /tmp\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1051 +msgid "Alternatively, prefix the permission set with a one (1):" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1055 +#, no-wrap +msgid "# chmod 1777 /tmp\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1058 +msgid "" +"The `sticky bit` permission will display as a `t` at the very end of the " +"permission set:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1062 +#, no-wrap +msgid "# ls -al / | grep tmp\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1067 +#, no-wrap +msgid "drwxrwxrwt 10 root wheel 512 Aug 31 01:49 tmp\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title == +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1070 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Directory Structure" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1076 +msgid "" +"The FreeBSD directory hierarchy is fundamental to obtaining an overall " +"understanding of the system. The most important directory is root or, \"/" +"\". This directory is the first one mounted at boot time and it contains " +"the base system necessary to prepare the operating system for multi-user " +"operation. The root directory also contains mount points for other file " +"systems that are mounted during the transition to multi-user operation." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1084 +msgid "" +"A mount point is a directory where additional file systems can be grafted " +"onto a parent file system (usually the root file system). This is further " +"described in crossref:basics[disk-organization, Disk Organization]. " +"Standard mount points include `/usr/`, `/var/`, `/tmp/`, `/mnt/`, and `/" +"cdrom/`. These directories are usually referenced to entries in `/etc/" +"fstab`. This file is a table of various file systems and mount points and " +"is read by the system. Most of the file systems in `/etc/fstab` are mounted " +"automatically at boot time from the script man:rc[8] unless their entry " +"includes `noauto`. Details can be found in crossref:basics[disks-fstab, The " +"fstab File]." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1087 +msgid "" +"A complete description of the file system hierarchy is available in " +"man:hier[7]. The following table provides a brief overview of the most " +"common directories." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1091 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Directory" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1093 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1698 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Description" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1094 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1096 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Root directory of the file system." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1097 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/bin/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1099 +#, no-wrap +msgid "User utilities fundamental to both single-user and multi-user environments." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1100 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/boot/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1102 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Programs and configuration files used during operating system bootstrap." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1103 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/boot/defaults/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1105 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Default boot configuration files. Refer to man:loader.conf[5] for details." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1106 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/dev/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1108 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Device special files managed by man:devfs[5]" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1109 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/etc/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1111 +#, no-wrap +msgid "System configuration files and scripts." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1112 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/etc/defaults/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1114 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Default system configuration files. Refer to man:rc[8] for details." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1115 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/etc/periodic/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1117 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Scripts that run daily, weekly, and monthly, via man:cron[8]. Refer to man:periodic[8] for details." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1118 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/lib/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1120 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Critical system libraries needed for binaries in `/bin` and `/sbin`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1121 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/libexec/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1123 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Critical system files" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1124 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/media/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1126 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Contains subdirectories to be used as mount points for removable media such as CDs, USB drives, and floppy disks" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1127 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/mnt/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1129 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Empty directory commonly used by system administrators as a temporary mount point." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1130 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/net/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1132 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Automounted NFS shares; see man:auto_master[5]" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1133 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/proc/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1135 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Process file system. Refer to man:procfs[5], man:mount_procfs[8] for details." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1136 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/rescue/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1138 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Statically linked programs for emergency recovery as described in man:rescue[8]." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1139 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/root/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1141 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Home directory for the `root` account." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1142 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/sbin/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1144 +#, no-wrap +msgid "System programs and administration utilities fundamental to both single-user and multi-user environments." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1145 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/tmp/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1147 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Temporary files which are usually _not_ preserved across a system reboot. A memory-based file system is often mounted at `/tmp`. This can be automated using the tmpmfs-related variables of man:rc.conf[5] or with an entry in `/etc/fstab`; refer to man:mdmfs[8] for details." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1148 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/usr/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1150 +#, no-wrap +msgid "The majority of user utilities and applications." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1151 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/usr/bin/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1153 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Common utilities, programming tools, and applications." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1154 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/usr/include/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1156 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Standard C include files." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1157 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/usr/lib/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1159 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Archive libraries." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1160 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/usr/libdata/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1162 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Miscellaneous utility data files." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1163 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/usr/libexec/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1165 +#, no-wrap +msgid "System daemons and system utilities executed by other programs." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1166 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/usr/local/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1168 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Local executables and libraries. Also used as the default destination for the FreeBSD ports framework. Within `/usr/local`, the general layout sketched out by man:hier[7] for `/usr` should be used. Exceptions are the man directory, which is directly under `/usr/local` rather than under `/usr/local/share`, and the ports documentation is in `share/doc/port`." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1169 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/usr/ports/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1171 +#, no-wrap +msgid "The FreeBSD Ports Collection (optional)." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1172 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/usr/sbin/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1174 +#, no-wrap +msgid "System daemons and system utilities executed by users." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1175 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/usr/share/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1177 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Architecture-independent files." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1178 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/usr/src/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1180 +#, no-wrap +msgid "BSD and/or local source files." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1181 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/var/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1183 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Multi-purpose log, temporary, transient, and spool files." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1184 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/var/log/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1186 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Miscellaneous system log files." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1187 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`/var/tmp/`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1189 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Temporary files which are usually preserved across a system reboot." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title == +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1192 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Disk Organization" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1197 +msgid "" +"The smallest unit of organization that FreeBSD uses to find files is the " +"filename. Filenames are case-sensitive, which means that `readme.txt` and " +"`README.TXT` are two separate files. FreeBSD does not use the extension of " +"a file to determine whether the file is a program, document, or some other " +"form of data." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1201 +msgid "" +"Files are stored in directories. A directory may contain no files, or it " +"may contain many hundreds of files. A directory can also contain other " +"directories, allowing a hierarchy of directories within one another in order " +"to organize data." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1207 +msgid "" +"Files and directories are referenced by giving the file or directory name, " +"followed by a forward slash, `/`, followed by any other directory names that " +"are necessary. For example, if the directory `foo` contains a directory " +"`bar` which contains the file `readme.txt`, the full name, or _path_, to the " +"file is `foo/bar/readme.txt`. Note that this is different from Windows(R) " +"which uses `\\` to separate file and directory names. FreeBSD does not use " +"drive letters, or other drive names in the path. For example, one would not " +"type `c:\\foo\\bar\\readme.txt` on FreeBSD." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title === +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1209 +#, no-wrap +msgid "File systems" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1217 +msgid "" +"Directories and files are stored in a file system. Each file system " +"contains exactly one directory at the very top level, called the _root " +"directory_ for that file system. This root directory can contain other " +"directories. One file system is designated the _root file system_ or `/`. " +"Every other file system is _mounted_ under the root file system. No matter " +"how many disks are on the FreeBSD system, every directory appears to be part " +"of the same disk." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1220 +msgid "" +"Consider three file systems, called `A`, `B`, and `C`. Each file system has " +"one root directory, which contains two other directories, called `A1`, `A2` " +"(and likewise `B1`, `B2` and `C1`, `C2`)." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1224 +msgid "" +"Call `A` the root file system. If man:ls[1] is used to view the contents of " +"this directory, it will show two subdirectories, `A1` and `A2`. The " +"directory tree looks like this:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Positional ($1) AttributeList argument for macro 'image' +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1225 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1230 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1238 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Directory tree with the root directory and two subdirectories" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Target for macro image +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1225 +#, no-wrap +msgid "example-dir1.png" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1229 +msgid "" +"A file system must be mounted on to a directory in another file system. " +"When mounting file system `B` on to the directory `A1`, the root directory " +"of `B` replaces `A1`, and the directories in `B` appear accordingly:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Target for macro image +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1230 +#, no-wrap +msgid "example-dir2.png" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1235 +msgid "" +"Any files that are in the `B1` or `B2` directories can be reached with the " +"path `/A1/B1` or `/A1/B2` as necessary. Any files that were in `/A1` have " +"been temporarily hidden. They will reappear if `B` is _unmounted_ from `A`." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1237 +msgid "If `B` had been mounted on `A2` then the diagram would look like this:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Target for macro image +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1238 +#, no-wrap +msgid "example-dir3.png" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1241 +msgid "and the paths would be `/A2/B1` and `/A2/B2` respectively." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1244 +msgid "" +"File systems can be mounted on top of one another. Continuing the last " +"example, the `C` file system could be mounted on top of the `B1` directory " +"in the `B` file system, leading to this arrangement:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Positional ($1) AttributeList argument for macro 'image' +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1245 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1249 +#, no-wrap +msgid "A complex directory tree. With different subdirectories hanging from root." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Target for macro image +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1245 +#, no-wrap +msgid "example-dir4.png" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1248 +msgid "" +"Or `C` could be mounted directly on to the `A` file system, under the `A1` " +"directory:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Target for macro image +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1249 +#, no-wrap +msgid "example-dir5.png" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1253 +msgid "" +"It is entirely possible to have one large root file system, and not need to " +"create any others. There are some drawbacks to this approach, and one " +"advantage." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Block title +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1254 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Benefits of Multiple File Systems" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1256 +msgid "" +"Different file systems can have different _mount options_. For example, the " +"root file system can be mounted read-only, making it impossible for users to " +"inadvertently delete or edit a critical file. Separating user-writable file " +"systems, such as `/home`, from other file systems allows them to be mounted " +"_nosuid_. This option prevents the _suid_/_guid_ bits on executables stored " +"on the file system from taking effect, possibly improving security." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1257 +msgid "" +"FreeBSD automatically optimizes the layout of files on a file system, " +"depending on how the file system is being used. So a file system that " +"contains many small files that are written frequently will have a different " +"optimization to one that contains fewer, larger files. By having one big " +"file system this optimization breaks down." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1258 +msgid "" +"FreeBSD's file systems are robust if power is lost. However, a power loss at " +"a critical point could still damage the structure of the file system. By " +"splitting data over multiple file systems it is more likely that the system " +"will still come up, making it easier to restore from backup as necessary." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Block title +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1259 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Benefit of a Single File System" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1261 +msgid "" +"File systems are a fixed size. If you create a file system when you install " +"FreeBSD and give it a specific size, you may later discover that you need to " +"make the partition bigger. This is not easily accomplished without backing " +"up, recreating the file system with the new size, and then restoring the " +"backed up data." +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1268 +msgid "" +"FreeBSD features the man:growfs[8] command, which makes it possible to " +"increase the size of file system on the fly, removing this limitation. A " +"file system can only be expanded into free space in the partition in which " +"it resides. If there is space after the partition, the partition can be " +"expanded with man:gpart[8]. If the partition is the last one on a virtual " +"disk, and the disk is expanded, the partition can then be expanded." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title === +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1271 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Disk partitions" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1284 +msgid "" +"File systems are contained in _partitions_. Disks are divided into " +"partitions using one of several partitioning schemes; see " +"crossref:bsdinstall[bsdinstall-part-manual, Manual Partitioning]. The newer " +"scheme is GPT; older BIOS-based computers use MBR. GPT supports division of " +"a disk into partitions with a size, offset, and type. It supports a large " +"number of partitions and partition types, and is recommended whenever its " +"use is possible. GPT partitions use the disk name with a suffix, where the " +"suffix is `p1` for the first partition, `p2` for the second, and so on. " +"MBR, however, supports only a small number of partitions. The MBR " +"partitions are known in FreeBSD as `slices`. Slices may be used for " +"different operating systems. FreeBSD slices are subdivided into partitions " +"using BSD labels (see man:bsdlabel[8])." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1290 +msgid "" +"Slice numbers follow the device name, prefixed with an `s`, starting at 1. " +"So \"da0__s1__\" is the first slice on the first SCSI drive. There can only " +"be four physical slices on a disk, but there can be logical slices inside " +"physical slices of the appropriate type. These extended slices are numbered " +"starting at 5, so \"ada0__s5__\" is the first extended slice on the first " +"SATA disk. These devices are used by file systems that expect to occupy a " +"slice." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1292 +msgid "" +"Each GPT or BSD partition can contain only one file system, which means that " +"file systems are often described by either their typical mount point in the " +"file system hierarchy, or the name of the partition they are contained in." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1297 +msgid "" +"FreeBSD also uses disk space for _swap space_ to provide _virtual memory_. " +"This allows your computer to behave as though it has much more memory than " +"it actually does. When FreeBSD runs out of memory, it moves some of the " +"data that is not currently being used to the swap space, and moves it back " +"in (moving something else out) when it needs it. This is called _paging_." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1299 +msgid "Some BSD partitions have certain conventions associated with them." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1303 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Partition" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1305 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Convention" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1306 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`a`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1308 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Normally contains the root file system." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1309 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`b`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1311 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Normally contains swap space." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1312 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`c`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1314 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Normally the same size as the enclosing slice. This allows utilities that need to work on the entire slice, such as a bad block scanner, to work on the `c` partition. A file system would not normally be created on this partition." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1315 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`d`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1316 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Partition `d` used to have a special meaning associated with it, although that is now gone and `d` may work as any normal partition." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1321 +msgid "" +"Slices and \"dangerously dedicated\" physical drives contain BSD partitions, " +"which are represented as letters from `a` to `h`. This letter is appended " +"to the device name, so \"da0__a__\" is the `a` partition on the first `da` " +"drive, which is \"dangerously dedicated\". \"ada1s3__e__\" is the fifth " +"partition in the third slice of the second SATA disk drive." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1326 +msgid "" +"Finally, each disk on the system is identified. A disk name starts with a " +"code that indicates the type of disk, and then a number, indicating which " +"disk it is. Unlike partitions and slices, disk numbering starts at 0. " +"Common codes are listed in crossref:basics[disks-naming,Disk Device Names]." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1330 +msgid "" +"When referring to a partition in a slice, include the disk name, `s`, the " +"slice number, and then the partition letter. Examples are shown in " +"crossref:basics[basics-disk-slice-part,Sample Disk, Slice, and Partition " +"Names]. GPT partitions include the disk name, `p`, and then the partition " +"number." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1332 +msgid "" +"crossref:basics[basics-concept-disk-model,Conceptual Model of a Disk] shows " +"a conceptual model of a disk layout using MBR slices." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1337 +msgid "" +"When installing FreeBSD, configure the disk slices if using MBR, and create " +"partitions within the slice to be used for FreeBSD. If using GPT, configure " +"partitions for each file system. In either case, create a file system or " +"swap space in each partition, and decide where each file system will be " +"mounted. See man:gpart[8] for information on manipulating partitions." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Block title +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1339 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Disk Device Names" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1343 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Drive Type" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1345 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Drive Device Name" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1346 +#, no-wrap +msgid "SATA and IDE hard drives" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1348 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`ada`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1349 +#, no-wrap +msgid "SCSI hard drives and USB storage devices" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1351 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`da`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1352 +#, no-wrap +msgid "NVMe storage" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1354 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`nvd` or `nda`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1355 +#, no-wrap +msgid "SATA and IDE CD-ROM drives" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1357 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1360 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`cd`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1358 +#, no-wrap +msgid "SCSI CD-ROM drives" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1361 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Floppy drives" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1363 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`fd`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1364 +#, no-wrap +msgid "SCSI tape drives" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1366 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`sa`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1367 +#, no-wrap +msgid "RAID drives" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1368 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Examples include `aacd` for Adaptec(R) AdvancedRAID, `mlxd` and `mlyd` for Mylex(R), `amrd` for AMI MegaRAID(R), `idad` for Compaq Smart RAID, `twed` for 3ware(R) RAID." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Block title +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1373 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Sample Disk, Slice, and Partition Names" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1378 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Name" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1380 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Meaning" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1381 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`ada0s1a`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1383 +#, no-wrap +msgid "The first partition (`a`) on the first slice (`s1`) on the first SATA disk (`ada0`)." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1384 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`da1s2e`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1385 +#, no-wrap +msgid "The fifth partition (`e`) on the second slice (`s2`) on the second SCSI disk (`da1`)." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Block title +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1389 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Conceptual Model of a Disk" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1396 +msgid "" +"This diagram shows FreeBSD's view of the first SATA disk attached to the " +"system. Assume that the disk is 250 GB in size, and contains an 80 GB slice " +"and a 170 GB slice (MS-DOS(R) partitions). The first slice contains a " +"Windows(R) NTFS file system, `C:`, and the second slice contains a FreeBSD " +"installation. This example FreeBSD installation has four data partitions " +"and a swap partition." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1400 +msgid "" +"The four partitions each hold a file system. Partition `a` is used for the " +"root file system, `d` for `/var/`, `e` for `/tmp/`, and `f` for `/usr/`. " +"Partition letter `c` refers to the entire slice, and so is not used for " +"ordinary partitions." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Positional ($1) AttributeList argument for macro 'image' +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1401 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Layout of a shared drive between Windows and FreeBSD" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Target for macro image +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1401 +#, no-wrap +msgid "disk-layout.png" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title == +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1405 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Mounting and Unmounting File Systems" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1408 +msgid "" +"The file system is best visualized as a tree, rooted, as it were, at `/`. `/" +"dev`, `/usr`, and the other directories in the root directory are branches, " +"which may have their own branches, such as `/usr/local`, and so on." +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1412 +msgid "" +"There are various reasons to house some of these directories on separate " +"file systems. `/var` contains the directories `log/`, `spool/`, and various " +"types of temporary files, and as such, may get filled up. Filling up the " +"root file system is not a good idea, so splitting `/var` from `/` is often " +"favorable." +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1414 +msgid "" +"Another common reason to contain certain directory trees on other file " +"systems is if they are to be housed on separate physical disks, or are " +"separate virtual disks, such as Network File System mounts, described in " +"crossref:network-servers[network-nfs,“Network File System (NFS)”], or CDROM " +"drives." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title === +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1416 +#, no-wrap +msgid "The fstab File" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1420 +msgid "" +"During the boot process (crossref:boot[boot,The FreeBSD Booting Process]), " +"file systems listed in `/etc/fstab` are automatically mounted except for the " +"entries containing `noauto`. This file contains entries in the following " +"format:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1424 +#, no-wrap +msgid "device /mount-point fstype options dumpfreq passno\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Labeled list +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1426 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`device`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1428 +msgid "" +"An existing device name as explained in crossref:basics[disks-naming,Disk " +"Device Names]." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Labeled list +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1429 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`mount-point`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1431 +msgid "An existing directory on which to mount the file system." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Labeled list +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1432 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`fstype`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1435 +msgid "" +"The file system type to pass to man:mount[8]. The default FreeBSD file " +"system is `ufs`." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Labeled list +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1436 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`options`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1440 +msgid "" +"Either `rw` for read-write file systems, or `ro` for read-only file systems, " +"followed by any other options that may be needed. A common option is " +"`noauto` for file systems not normally mounted during the boot sequence. " +"Other options are listed in man:mount[8]." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Labeled list +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1441 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`dumpfreq`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1444 +msgid "" +"Used by man:dump[8] to determine which file systems require dumping. If the " +"field is missing, a value of zero is assumed." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Labeled list +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1445 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`passno`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1451 +msgid "" +"Determines the order in which UFS file systems should be checked by " +"man:fsck[8] after a reboot. File systems that should be skipped should have " +"their `passno` set to zero. The root file system needs to be checked before " +"everything else and should have its `passno` set to one. The other file " +"systems should be set to values greater than one. If more than one file " +"system has the same `passno`, man:fsck[8] will attempt to check file systems " +"in parallel if possible." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1453 +msgid "" +"Refer to man:fstab[5] for more information on the format of `/etc/fstab` and " +"its options." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title === +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1455 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Using man:mount[8]" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1459 +msgid "" +"File systems are mounted using man:mount[8]. The most basic syntax is as " +"follows:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1465 +#, no-wrap +msgid "# mount device mountpoint\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1469 +msgid "" +"A file system listed in `/etc/fstab` can also be mounted by providing just " +"the mountpoint." +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1472 +msgid "" +"This command provides many options which are described in man:mount[8]. The " +"most commonly used options include:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Block title +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1473 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Mount Options" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Labeled list +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1474 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`-a`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1476 +msgid "" +"Mount all the file systems listed in `/etc/fstab`, except those marked as " +"\"noauto\", excluded by the `-t` flag, or those that are already mounted." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Labeled list +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1477 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`-d`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1480 +msgid "" +"Do everything except for the actual mount system call. This option is " +"useful in conjunction with the `-v` flag to determine what man:mount[8] is " +"actually trying to do." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Labeled list +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1481 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`-f`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1483 +msgid "" +"Force the mount of an unclean file system (dangerous), or the revocation of " +"write access when downgrading a file system's mount status from read-write " +"to read-only." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Labeled list +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1484 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`-r`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1487 +msgid "Mount the file system read-only. This is identical to using `-o ro`." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Labeled list +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1488 +#, no-wrap +msgid "``-t _fstype_``" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1491 +msgid "" +"Mount the specified file system type or mount only file systems of the given " +"type, if `-a` is included. \"ufs\" is the default file system type." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Labeled list +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1492 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`-u`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1494 +msgid "Update mount options on the file system." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Labeled list +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1495 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`-v`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1497 +msgid "Be verbose." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Labeled list +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1498 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`-w`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1500 +msgid "Mount the file system read-write." +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1502 +msgid "The following options can be passed to `-o` as a comma-separated list:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Labeled list +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1503 +#, no-wrap +msgid "nosuid" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1506 +msgid "" +"Do not interpret setuid or setgid flags on the file system. This is also a " +"useful security option." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title === +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1508 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Using man:umount[8]" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1512 +msgid "" +"To unmount a file system use man:umount[8]. This command takes one " +"parameter which can be a mountpoint, device name, `-a` or `-A`." +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1515 +msgid "" +"All forms take `-f` to force unmounting, and `-v` for verbosity. Be warned " +"that `-f` is not generally a good idea as it might crash the computer or " +"damage data on the file system." +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1518 +msgid "" +"To unmount all mounted file systems, or just the file system types listed " +"after `-t`, use `-a` or `-A`. Note that `-A` does not attempt to unmount " +"the root file system." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title == +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1520 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Processes and Daemons" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1525 +msgid "" +"FreeBSD is a multi-tasking operating system. Each program running at any " +"one time is called a _process_. Every running command starts at least one " +"new process and there are a number of system processes that are run by " +"FreeBSD." +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1531 +msgid "" +"Each process is uniquely identified by a number called a _process ID_ " +"(PID). Similar to files, each process has one owner and group, and the " +"owner and group permissions are used to determine which files and devices " +"the process can open. Most processes also have a parent process that " +"started them. For example, the shell is a process, and any command started " +"in the shell is a process which has the shell as its parent process. The " +"exception is a special process called man:init[8] which is always the first " +"process to start at boot time and which always has a PID of `1`." +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1538 +msgid "" +"Some programs are not designed to be run with continuous user input and " +"disconnect from the terminal at the first opportunity. For example, a web " +"server responds to web requests, rather than user input. Mail servers are " +"another example of this type of application. These types of programs are " +"known as _daemons_. The term daemon comes from Greek mythology and " +"represents an entity that is neither good nor evil, and which invisibly " +"performs useful tasks. This is why the BSD mascot is the cheerful-looking " +"daemon with sneakers and a pitchfork." +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1544 +msgid "" +"There is a convention to name programs that normally run as daemons with a " +"trailing \"d\". For example, BIND is the Berkeley Internet Name Domain, but " +"the actual program that executes is `named`. The Apache web server program " +"is `httpd` and the line printer spooling daemon is `lpd`. This is only a " +"naming convention. For example, the main mail daemon for the Sendmail " +"application is `sendmail`, and not `maild`." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title === +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1545 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Viewing Processes" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1550 +msgid "" +"To see the processes running on the system, use man:ps[1] or man:top[1]. To " +"display a static list of the currently running processes, their PIDs, how " +"much memory they are using, and the command they were started with, use " +"man:ps[1]. To display all the running processes and update the display " +"every few seconds in order to interactively see what the computer is doing, " +"use man:top[1]." +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1553 +msgid "" +"By default, man:ps[1] only shows the commands that are running and owned by " +"the user. For example:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1557 +#, no-wrap +msgid "% ps\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1566 +#, no-wrap +msgid "" +" PID TT STAT TIME COMMAND\n" +"8203 0 Ss 0:00.59 /bin/csh\n" +"8895 0 R+ 0:00.00 ps\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1576 +msgid "" +"The output from man:ps[1] is organized into a number of columns. The `PID` " +"column displays the process ID. PIDs are assigned starting at 1, go up to " +"99999, then wrap around back to the beginning. However, a PID is not " +"reassigned if it is already in use. The `TT` column shows the tty the " +"program is running on and `STAT` shows the program's state. `TIME` is the " +"amount of time the program has been running on the CPU. This is usually not " +"the elapsed time since the program was started, as most programs spend a lot " +"of time waiting for things to happen before they need to spend time on the " +"CPU. Finally, `COMMAND` is the command that was used to start the program." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1579 +msgid "" +"A number of different options are available to change the information that " +"is displayed. One of the most useful sets is `auxww`, where `a` displays " +"information about all the running processes of all users, `u` displays the " +"username and memory usage of the process' owner, `x` displays information " +"about daemon processes, and `ww` causes man:ps[1] to display the full " +"command line for each process, rather than truncating it once it gets too " +"long to fit on the screen." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1581 +msgid "The output from man:top[1] is similar:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1585 +#, no-wrap +msgid "% top\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1597 +#, no-wrap +msgid "" +"last pid: 9609; load averages: 0.56, 0.45, 0.36 up 0+00:20:03 10:21:46\n" +"107 processes: 2 running, 104 sleeping, 1 zombie\n" +"CPU: 6.2% user, 0.1% nice, 8.2% system, 0.4% interrupt, 85.1% idle\n" +"Mem: 541M Active, 450M Inact, 1333M Wired, 4064K Cache, 1498M Free\n" +"ARC: 992M Total, 377M MFU, 589M MRU, 250K Anon, 5280K Header, 21M Other\n" +"Swap: 2048M Total, 2048M Free\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1610 +#, no-wrap +msgid "" +" PID USERNAME THR PRI NICE SIZE RES STATE C TIME WCPU COMMAND\n" +" 557 root 1 -21 r31 136M 42296K select 0 2:20 9.96% Xorg\n" +" 8198 dru 2 52 0 449M 82736K select 3 0:08 5.96% kdeinit4\n" +" 8311 dru 27 30 0 1150M 187M uwait 1 1:37 0.98% firefox\n" +" 431 root 1 20 0 14268K 1728K select 0 0:06 0.98% moused\n" +" 9551 dru 1 21 0 16600K 2660K CPU3 3 0:01 0.98% top\n" +" 2357 dru 4 37 0 718M 141M select 0 0:21 0.00% kdeinit4\n" +" 8705 dru 4 35 0 480M 98M select 2 0:20 0.00% kdeinit4\n" +" 8076 dru 6 20 0 552M 113M uwait 0 0:12 0.00% soffice.bin\n" +" 2623 root 1 30 10 12088K 1636K select 3 0:09 0.00% powerd\n" +" 2338 dru 1 20 0 440M 84532K select 1 0:06 0.00% kwin\n" +" 1427 dru 5 22 0 605M 86412K select 1 0:05 0.00% kdeinit4\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1616 +msgid "" +"The output is split into two sections. The header (the first five or six " +"lines) shows the PID of the last process to run, the system load averages " +"(which are a measure of how busy the system is), the system uptime (time " +"since the last reboot) and the current time. The other figures in the " +"header relate to how many processes are running, how much memory and swap " +"space has been used, and how much time the system is spending in different " +"CPU states. If the ZFS file system module has been loaded, an `ARC` line " +"indicates how much data was read from the memory cache instead of from disk." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1621 +msgid "" +"Below the header is a series of columns containing similar information to " +"the output from man:ps[1], such as the PID, username, amount of CPU time, " +"and the command that started the process. By default, man:top[1] also " +"displays the amount of memory space taken by the process. This is split " +"into two columns: one for total size and one for resident size. Total size " +"is how much memory the application has needed and the resident size is how " +"much it is actually using now." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1624 +msgid "" +"man:top[1] automatically updates the display every two seconds. A different " +"interval can be specified with `-s`." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title === +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1626 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Killing Processes" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1632 +msgid "" +"One way to communicate with any running process or daemon is to send a " +"_signal_ using man:kill[1]. There are a number of different signals; some " +"have a specific meaning while others are described in the application's " +"documentation. A user can only send a signal to a process they own and " +"sending a signal to someone else's process will result in a permission " +"denied error. The exception is the `root` user, who can send signals to " +"anyone's processes." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1636 +msgid "" +"The operating system can also send a signal to a process. If an application " +"is badly written and tries to access memory that it is not supposed to, " +"FreeBSD will send the process the \"Segmentation Violation\" signal " +"(`SIGSEGV`). If an application has been written to use the man:alarm[3] " +"system call to be alerted after a period of time has elapsed, it will be " +"sent the \"Alarm\" signal (`SIGALRM`)." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1640 +msgid "" +"Two signals can be used to stop a process: `SIGTERM` and `SIGKILL`. " +"`SIGTERM` is the polite way to kill a process as the process can read the " +"signal, close any log files it may have open, and attempt to finish what it " +"is doing before shutting down. In some cases, a process may ignore " +"`SIGTERM` if it is in the middle of some task that cannot be interrupted." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1643 +msgid "" +"`SIGKILL` cannot be ignored by a process. Sending a `SIGKILL` to a process " +"will usually stop that process there and then. footnote:[There are a few " +"tasks that cannot be interrupted. For example, if the process is trying to " +"read from a file that is on another computer on the network, and the other " +"computer is unavailable, the process is said to be uninterruptible. " +"Eventually the process will time out, typically after two minutes. As soon " +"as this time out occurs the process will be killed.]." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1646 +msgid "" +"Other commonly used signals are `SIGHUP`, `SIGUSR1`, and `SIGUSR2`. Since " +"these are general purpose signals, different applications will respond " +"differently." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1651 +msgid "" +"For example, after changing a web server's configuration file, the web " +"server needs to be told to re-read its configuration. Restarting `httpd` " +"would result in a brief outage period on the web server. Instead, send the " +"daemon the `SIGHUP` signal. Be aware that different daemons will have " +"different behavior, so refer to the documentation for the daemon to " +"determine if `SIGHUP` will achieve the desired results." +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1658 +msgid "" +"Killing a random process on the system is a bad idea. In particular, " +"man:init[8], PID 1, is special. Running `/bin/kill -s KILL 1` is a quick, " +"and unrecommended, way to shutdown the system. _Always_ double check the " +"arguments to man:kill[1] _before_ pressing kbd:[Return]." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title == +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1661 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Shells" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1668 +msgid "" +"A _shell_ provides a command line interface for interacting with the " +"operating system. A shell receives commands from the input channel and " +"executes them. Many shells provide built in functions to help with everyday " +"tasks such as file management, file globbing, command line editing, command " +"macros, and environment variables. FreeBSD comes with several shells, " +"including the Bourne shell (man:sh[1]) and the extended C shell " +"(man:tcsh[1]). Other shells are available from the FreeBSD Ports " +"Collection, such as `zsh` and `bash`." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1673 +msgid "" +"The shell that is used is really a matter of taste. A C programmer might " +"feel more comfortable with a C-like shell such as man:tcsh[1]. A Linux(R) " +"user might prefer `bash`. Each shell has unique properties that may or may " +"not work with a user's preferred working environment, which is why there is " +"a choice of which shell to use." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1678 +msgid "" +"One common shell feature is filename completion. After a user types the " +"first few letters of a command or filename and presses kbd:[Tab], the shell " +"completes the rest of the command or filename. Consider two files called " +"`foobar` and `football`. To delete `foobar`, the user might type `rm foo` " +"and press kbd:[Tab] to complete the filename." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1684 +msgid "" +"But the shell only shows `rm foo`. It was unable to complete the filename " +"because both `foobar` and `football` start with `foo`. Some shells sound a " +"beep or show all the choices if more than one name matches. The user must " +"then type more characters to identify the desired filename. Typing a `t` " +"and pressing kbd:[Tab] again is enough to let the shell determine which " +"filename is desired and fill in the rest." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1690 +msgid "" +"Another feature of the shell is the use of environment variables. " +"Environment variables are a variable/key pair stored in the shell's " +"environment. This environment can be read by any program invoked by the " +"shell, and thus contains a lot of program configuration. " +"crossref:basics[shell-env-vars,Common Environment Variables] provides a list " +"of common environment variables and their meanings. Note that the names of " +"environment variables are always in uppercase." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Block title +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1692 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Common Environment Variables" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1696 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Variable" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1699 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`USER`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1701 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Current logged in user's name." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1702 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`PATH`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1704 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Colon-separated list of directories to search for binaries." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1705 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`DISPLAY`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1707 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Network name of the Xorg display to connect to, if available." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1708 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`SHELL`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1710 +#, no-wrap +msgid "The current shell." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1711 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`TERM`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1713 +#, no-wrap +msgid "The name of the user's type of terminal. Used to determine the capabilities of the terminal." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1714 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`TERMCAP`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1716 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Database entry of the terminal escape codes to perform various terminal functions." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1717 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`OSTYPE`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1719 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Type of operating system." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1720 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`MACHTYPE`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1722 +#, no-wrap +msgid "The system's CPU architecture." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1723 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`EDITOR`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1725 +#, no-wrap +msgid "The user's preferred text editor." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1726 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`PAGER`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1728 +#, no-wrap +msgid "The user's preferred utility for viewing text one page at a time." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1729 +#, no-wrap +msgid "`MANPATH`" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Table +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1730 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Colon-separated list of directories to search for manual pages." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1736 +msgid "" +"How to set an environment variable differs between shells. In man:tcsh[1] " +"and man:csh[1], use `setenv` to set environment variables. In man:sh[1] and " +"`bash`, use `export` to set the current environment variables. This example " +"sets the default `EDITOR` to `/usr/local/bin/emacs` for the man:tcsh[1] " +"shell:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1740 +#, no-wrap +msgid "% setenv EDITOR /usr/local/bin/emacs\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1743 +msgid "The equivalent command for `bash` would be:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1747 +#, no-wrap +msgid "% export EDITOR=\"/usr/local/bin/emacs\"\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1751 +msgid "" +"To expand an environment variable in order to see its current setting, type " +"a `$` character in front of its name on the command line. For example, " +"`echo $TERM` displays the current `$TERM` setting." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1756 +msgid "" +"Shells treat special characters, known as meta-characters, as special " +"representations of data. The most common meta-character is `\\*`, which " +"represents any number of characters in a filename. Meta-characters can be " +"used to perform filename globbing. For example, `echo *` is equivalent to " +"`ls` because the shell takes all the files that match `*` and `echo` lists " +"them on the command line." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1759 +msgid "" +"To prevent the shell from interpreting a special character, escape it from " +"the shell by starting it with a backslash (`\\`). For example, `echo $TERM` " +"prints the terminal setting whereas `echo \\$TERM` literally prints the " +"string `$TERM`." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title === +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1761 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Changing the Shell" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1766 +msgid "" +"The easiest way to permanently change the default shell is to use `chsh`. " +"Running this command will open the editor that is configured in the `EDITOR` " +"environment variable, which by default is set to man:vi[1]. Change the " +"`Shell:` line to the full path of the new shell." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1769 +msgid "" +"Alternately, use `chsh -s` which will set the specified shell without " +"opening an editor. For example, to change the shell to `bash`:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1773 +#, no-wrap +msgid "% chsh -s /usr/local/bin/bash\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1777 +msgid "" +"Enter your password at the prompt and press kbd:[Return] to change your " +"shell. Log off and log in again to start using the new shell." +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1783 +msgid "" +"The new shell _must_ be present in `/etc/shells`. If the shell was " +"installed from the FreeBSD Ports Collection as described in " +"crossref:ports[ports,Installing Applications: Packages and Ports], it should " +"be automatically added to this file. If it is missing, add it using this " +"command, replacing the path with the path of the shell:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1787 +#, no-wrap +msgid "# echo /usr/local/bin/bash >> /etc/shells\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1790 +msgid "Then, rerun man:chsh[1]." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title === +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1792 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Advanced Shell Techniques" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1796 +msgid "" +"The UNIX(R) shell is not just a command interpreter, it acts as a powerful " +"tool which allows users to execute commands, redirect their output, redirect " +"their input and chain commands together to improve the final command " +"output. When this functionality is mixed with built in commands, the user " +"is provided with an environment that can maximize efficiency." +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block = 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1799 +msgid "" +"Shell redirection is the action of sending the output or the input of a " +"command into another command or into a file. To capture the output of the " +"man:ls[1] command, for example, into a file, redirect the output:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1803 +#, no-wrap +msgid "% ls > directory_listing.txt\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1808 +msgid "" +"The directory contents will now be listed in `directory_listing.txt`. Some " +"commands can be used to read input, such as man:sort[1]. To sort this " +"listing, redirect the input:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1812 +#, no-wrap +msgid "% sort < directory_listing.txt\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1816 +msgid "" +"The input will be sorted and placed on the screen. To redirect that input " +"into another file, one could redirect the output of man:sort[1] by mixing " +"the direction:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1820 +#, no-wrap +msgid "% sort < directory_listing.txt > sorted.txt\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1828 +msgid "" +"In all of the previous examples, the commands are performing redirection " +"using file descriptors. Every UNIX(R) system has file descriptors, which " +"include standard input (stdin), standard output (stdout), and standard error " +"(stderr). Each one has a purpose, where input could be a keyboard or a " +"mouse, something that provides input. Output could be a screen or paper in " +"a printer. And error would be anything that is used for diagnostic or error " +"messages. All three are considered I/O based file descriptors and sometimes " +"considered streams." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1831 +msgid "" +"Through the use of these descriptors, the shell allows output and input to " +"be passed around through various commands and redirected to or from a file. " +"Another method of redirection is the pipe operator." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1834 +msgid "" +"The UNIX(R) pipe operator, \"|\" allows the output of one command to be " +"directly passed or directed to another program. Basically, a pipe allows " +"the standard output of a command to be passed as standard input to another " +"command, for example:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1838 +#, no-wrap +msgid "% cat directory_listing.txt | sort | less\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1842 +msgid "" +"In that example, the contents of `directory_listing.txt` will be sorted and " +"the output passed to man:less[1]. This allows the user to scroll through " +"the output at their own pace and prevent it from scrolling off the screen." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title == +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1844 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Text Editors" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1848 +msgid "" +"Most FreeBSD configuration is done by editing text files, so it is a good " +"idea to become familiar with a text editor. FreeBSD comes with a few as " +"part of the base system, and many more are available in the Ports Collection." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1855 +msgid "" +"A simple editor to learn is man:ee[1], which stands for easy editor. To " +"start this editor, type `ee _filename_` where _filename_ is the name of the " +"file to be edited. Once inside the editor, all of the commands for " +"manipulating the editor's functions are listed at the top of the display. " +"The caret (`^`) represents kbd:[Ctrl], so `^e` expands to kbd:[Ctrl+e]. To " +"leave man:ee[1], press kbd:[Esc], then choose the \"leave editor\" option " +"from the main menu. The editor will prompt to save any changes if the file " +"has been modified." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1860 +msgid "" +"FreeBSD also comes with more powerful text editors, such as man:vi[1], as " +"part of the base system. Other editors, like package:editors/emacs[] and " +"package:editors/vim[], are part of the FreeBSD Ports Collection. These " +"editors offer more functionality at the expense of being more complicated to " +"learn. Learning a more powerful editor such as vim or Emacs can save more " +"time in the long run." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1864 +msgid "" +"Many applications which modify files or require typed input will " +"automatically open a text editor. To change the default editor, set the " +"`EDITOR` environment variable as described in crossref:basics[shells, " +"Shells]." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title == +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1866 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Devices and Device Nodes" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1871 +msgid "" +"A device is a term used mostly for hardware-related activities in a system, " +"including disks, printers, graphics cards, and keyboards. When FreeBSD " +"boots, the majority of the boot messages refer to devices being detected. A " +"copy of the boot messages is saved to `/var/run/dmesg.boot`." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1874 +msgid "" +"Each device has a device name and number. For example, `ada0` is the first " +"SATA hard drive, while `kbd0` represents the keyboard." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1876 +msgid "" +"Most devices in FreeBSD must be accessed through special files called device " +"nodes, which are located in `/dev`." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title == +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1878 +#, no-wrap +msgid "Manual Pages" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1883 +msgid "" +"The most comprehensive documentation on FreeBSD is in the form of manual " +"pages. Nearly every program on the system comes with a short reference " +"manual explaining the basic operation and available arguments. These " +"manuals can be viewed using `man`:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1887 +#, no-wrap +msgid "% man command\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1891 +msgid "" +"where _command_ is the name of the command to learn about. For example, to " +"learn more about man:ls[1], type:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1895 +#, no-wrap +msgid "% man ls\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1899 +msgid "" +"Manual pages are divided into sections which represent the type of topic. " +"In FreeBSD, the following sections are available:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1901 +msgid "User commands." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1902 +msgid "System calls and error numbers." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1903 +msgid "Functions in the C libraries." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1904 +msgid "Device drivers." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1905 +msgid "File formats." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1906 +msgid "Games and other diversions." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1907 +msgid "Miscellaneous information." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1908 +msgid "System maintenance and operation commands." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1909 +msgid "System kernel interfaces." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1913 +msgid "" +"In some cases, the same topic may appear in more than one section of the " +"online manual. For example, there is a `chmod` user command and a `chmod()` " +"system call. To tell man:man[1] which section to display, specify the " +"section number:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1917 +#, no-wrap +msgid "% man 1 chmod\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1921 +msgid "" +"This will display the manual page for the user command man:chmod[1]. " +"References to a particular section of the online manual are traditionally " +"placed in parenthesis in written documentation, so man:chmod[1] refers to " +"the user command and man:chmod[2] refers to the system call." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1923 +msgid "" +"If the name of the manual page is unknown, use `man -k` to search for " +"keywords in the manual page descriptions:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1927 +#, no-wrap +msgid "% man -k mail\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1931 +msgid "" +"This command displays a list of commands that have the keyword \"mail\" in " +"their descriptions. This is equivalent to using man:apropos[1]." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1933 +msgid "To read the descriptions for all of the commands in `/usr/sbin`, type:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1938 +#, no-wrap +msgid "" +"% cd /usr/sbin\n" +"% man -f * | more\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1941 +msgid "or" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1946 +#, no-wrap +msgid "" +"% cd /usr/sbin\n" +"% whatis * |more\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Title === +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1949 +#, no-wrap +msgid "GNU Info Files" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1954 +msgid "" +"FreeBSD includes several applications and utilities produced by the Free " +"Software Foundation (FSF). In addition to manual pages, these programs may " +"include hypertext documents called `info` files. These can be viewed using " +"man:info[1] or, if package:editors/emacs[] is installed, the info mode of " +"emacs." +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1956 +msgid "To use man:info[1], type:" +msgstr "" + +#. type: delimited block . 4 +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1960 +#, no-wrap +msgid "% info\n" +msgstr "" + +#. type: Plain text +#: documentation/content/en/books/handbook/basics/_index.adoc:1963 +msgid "" +"For a brief introduction, type `h`. For a quick command reference, type `?`." +msgstr "" |