1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
|
<html>
<head>
<title> libsm : Assert and Abort </title>
</head>
<body>
<a href="index.html">Back to libsm overview</a>
<center>
<h1> libsm : Assert and Abort </h1>
<br> $Id: assert.html,v 1.1.1.1 2002/02/17 21:56:43 gshapiro Exp $
</center>
<h2> Introduction </h2>
This package contains abstractions
for assertion checking and abnormal program termination.
<h2> Synopsis </h2>
<pre>
#include <sm/assert.h>
/*
** abnormal program termination
*/
void sm_abort_at(char *filename, int lineno, char *msg);
typedef void (*SM_ABORT_HANDLER)(char *filename, int lineno, char *msg);
void sm_abort_sethandler(SM_ABORT_HANDLER);
void sm_abort(char *fmt, ...)
/*
** assertion checking
*/
SM_REQUIRE(expression)
SM_ASSERT(expression)
SM_ENSURE(expression)
extern SM_DEBUG_T SmExpensiveRequire;
extern SM_DEBUG_T SmExpensiveAssert;
extern SM_DEBUG_T SmExpensiveEnsure;
#if SM_CHECK_REQUIRE
#if SM_CHECK_ASSERT
#if SM_CHECK_ENSURE
cc -DSM_CHECK_ALL=0 -DSM_CHECK_REQUIRE=1 ...
</pre>
<h2> Abnormal Program Termination </h2>
The functions sm_abort and sm_abort_at are used to report a logic
bug and terminate the program. They can be invoked directly,
and they are also used by the assertion checking macros.
<dl>
<dt>
void sm_abort_at(char *filename, int lineno, char *msg)
<dd>
This is the low level interface for causing abnormal program
termination. It is intended to be invoked from a
macro, such as the assertion checking macros.
If filename != NULL then filename and lineno specify the line
of source code on which the logic bug is detected. These
arguments are normally either set to __FILE__ and __LINE__
from an assertion checking macro, or they are set to NULL and 0.
The default action is to print an error message to smioerr
using the arguments, and then call abort(). This default
behaviour can be changed by calling sm_abort_sethandler.
<p>
<dt>
void sm_abort_sethandler(SM_ABORT_HANDLER handler)
<dd>
Install 'handler' as the callback function that is invoked
by sm_abort_at. This callback function is passed the same
arguments as sm_abort_at, and is expected to log an error
message and terminate the program. The callback function should
not raise an exception or perform cleanup: see Rationale.
sm_abort_sethandler is intended to be called once, from main(),
before any additional threads are created: see Rationale.
You should not use sm_abort_sethandler to
switch back and forth between several handlers;
this is particularly dangerous when there are
multiple threads, or when you are in a library routine.
<p>
<dt>
void sm_abort(char *fmt, ...)
<dd>
This is the high level interface for causing abnormal program
termination. It takes printf arguments. There is no need to
include a trailing newline in the format string; a trailing newline
will be printed if appropriate by the handler function.
</dl>
<h2> Assertions </h2>
The assertion handling package
supports a style of programming in which assertions are used
liberally throughout the code, both as a form of documentation,
and as a way of detecting bugs in the code by performing runtime checks.
<p>
There are three kinds of assertion:
<dl>
<dt>
SM_REQUIRE(expr)
<dd>
This is an assertion used at the beginning of a function
to check that the preconditions for calling the function
have been satisfied by the caller.
<p>
<dt>
SM_ENSURE(expr)
<dd>
This is an assertion used just before returning from a function
to check that the function has satisfied all of the postconditions
that it is required to satisfy by its contract with the caller.
<p>
<dt>
SM_ASSERT(expr)
<dd>
This is an assertion that is used in the middle of a function,
to check loop invariants, and for any other kind of check that is
not a "require" or "ensure" check.
</dl>
If any of the above assertion macros fail, then sm_abort_at
is called. By default, a message is printed to stderr and the
program is aborted. For example, if SM_REQUIRE(arg > 0) fails
because arg <= 0, then the message
<blockquote><pre>
foo.c:47: SM_REQUIRE(arg > 0) failed
</pre></blockquote>
is printed to stderr, and abort() is called.
You can change this default behaviour using sm_abort_sethandler.
<h2> How To Disable Assertion Checking At Compile Time </h2>
You can use compile time macros to selectively enable or disable
each of the three kinds of assertions, for performance reasons.
For example, you might want to enable SM_REQUIRE checking
(because it finds the most bugs), but disable the other two types.
<p>
By default, all three types of assertion are enabled.
You can selectively disable individual assertion types
by setting one or more of the following cpp macros to 0
before <sm/assert.h> is included for the first time:
<blockquote>
SM_CHECK_REQUIRE<br>
SM_CHECK_ENSURE<br>
SM_CHECK_ASSERT<br>
</blockquote>
Or, you can define SM_CHECK_ALL as 0 to disable all assertion
types, then selectively define one or more of SM_CHECK_REQUIRE,
SM_CHECK_ENSURE or SM_CHECK_ASSERT as 1. For example,
to disable all assertions except for SM_REQUIRE, you can use
these C compiler flags:
<blockquote>
-DSM_CHECK_ALL=0 -DSM_CHECK_REQUIRE=1
</blockquote>
After <sm/assert.h> is included, the macros
SM_CHECK_REQUIRE, SM_CHECK_ENSURE and SM_CHECK_ASSERT
are each set to either 0 or 1.
<h2> How To Write Complex or Expensive Assertions </h2>
Sometimes an assertion check requires more code than a simple
boolean expression.
For example, it might require an entire statement block
with its own local variables.
You can code such assertion checks by making them conditional on
SM_CHECK_REQUIRE, SM_CHECK_ENSURE or SM_CHECK_ASSERT,
and using sm_abort to signal failure.
<p>
Sometimes an assertion check is significantly more expensive
than one or two comparisons.
In such cases, it is not uncommon for developers to comment out
the assertion once the code is unit tested.
Please don't do this: it makes it hard to turn the assertion
check back on for the purposes of regression testing.
What you should do instead is make the assertion check conditional
on one of these predefined debug objects:
<blockquote>
SmExpensiveRequire<br>
SmExpensiveAssert<br>
SmExpensiveEnsure
</blockquote>
By doing this, you bring the cost of the assertion checking code
back down to a single comparison, unless expensive assertion checking
has been explicitly enabled.
By the way, the corresponding debug category names are
<blockquote>
sm_check_require<br>
sm_check_assert<br>
sm_check_ensure
</blockquote>
What activation level should you check for?
Higher levels correspond to more expensive assertion checks.
Here are some basic guidelines:
<blockquote>
level 1: < 10 basic C operations<br>
level 2: < 100 basic C operations<br>
level 3: < 1000 basic C operations<br>
...
</blockquote>
<p>
Here's a contrived example of both techniques:
<blockquote><pre>
void
w_munge(WIDGET *w)
{
SM_REQUIRE(w != NULL);
#if SM_CHECK_REQUIRE
/*
** We run this check at level 3 because we expect to check a few hundred
** table entries.
*/
if (sm_debug_active(&SmExpensiveRequire, 3))
{
int i;
for (i = 0; i < WIDGET_MAX; ++i)
{
if (w[i] == NULL)
sm_abort("w_munge: NULL entry %d in widget table", i);
}
}
#endif /* SM_CHECK_REQUIRE */
</pre></blockquote>
<h2> Other Guidelines </h2>
You should resist the urge to write SM_ASSERT(0) when the code has
reached an impossible place. It's better to call sm_abort, because
then you can generate a better error message. For example,
<blockquote><pre>
switch (foo)
{
...
default:
sm_abort("impossible value %d for foo", foo);
}
</pre></blockquote>
Note that I did not bother to guard the default clause of the switch
statement with #if SM_CHECK_ASSERT ... #endif, because there is
probably no performance gain to be had by disabling this particular check.
<p>
Avoid including code that has side effects inside of assert macros,
or inside of SM_CHECK_* guards. You don't want the program to stop
working if assertion checking is disabled.
<h2> Rationale for Logic Bug Handling </h2>
When a logic bug is detected, our philosophy is to log an error message
and terminate the program, dumping core if possible.
It is not a good idea to raise an exception, attempt cleanup,
or continue program execution. Here's why.
<p>
First of all, to facilitate post-mortem analysis, we want to dump core
on detecting a logic bug, disturbing the process image as little as
possible before dumping core. We don't want to raise an exception
and unwind the stack, executing cleanup code, before dumping core,
because that would obliterate information we need to analyze the cause
of the abort.
<p>
Second, it is a bad idea to raise an exception on an assertion failure
because this places unacceptable restrictions on code that uses
the assertion macros.
The reason is this: the sendmail code must be written so that
anywhere it is possible for an assertion to be raised, the code
will catch the exception and clean up if necessary, restoring
data structure invariants and freeing resources as required.
If an assertion failure was signalled by raising an exception,
then every time you added an assertion, you would need to check
both the function containing the assertion and its callers to see
if any exception handling code needed to be added to clean up properly
on assertion failure. That is far too great a burden.
<p>
It is a bad idea to attempt cleanup upon detecting a logic bug
for several reasons:
<ul>
<li>If you need to perform cleanup actions in order to preserve the
integrity of the data that the program is handling, then the
program is not fault tolerant, and needs to be redesigned.
There are several reasons why a program might be terminated unexpectedly:
the system might crash, the program might receive a signal 9,
the program might be terminated by a memory fault (possibly as a
side effect of earlier data structure corruption), and the program
might detect a logic bug and terminate itself. Note that executing
cleanup actions is not feasible in most of the above cases.
If the program has a fault tolerant design, then it will not lose
data even if the system crashes in the middle of an operation.
<p>
<li>If the cause of the logic bug is earlier data structure corruption,
then cleanup actions intended to preserve the integrity of the data
that the program is handling might cause more harm than good: they
might cause information to be corrupted or lost.
<p>
<li>If the program uses threads, then cleanup is much more problematic.
Suppose that thread A is holding some locks, and is in the middle of
modifying a shared data structure. The locks are needed because the
data structure is currently in an inconsistent state. At this point,
a logic bug is detected deep in a library routine called by A.
How do we get all of the running threads to stop what they are doing
and perform their thread-specific cleanup actions before terminating?
We may not be able to get B to clean up and terminate cleanly until
A has restored the invariants on the data structure it is modifying
and releases its locks. So, we raise an exception and unwind the stack,
restoring data structure invariants and releasing locks at each level
of abstraction, and performing an orderly shutdown. There are certainly
many classes of error conditions for which using the exception mechanism
to perform an orderly shutdown is appropriate and feasible, but there
are also classes of error conditions for which exception handling and
orderly shutdown is dangerous or impossible. The abnormal program
termination system is intended for this second class of error conditions.
If you want to trigger orderly shutdown, don't call sm_abort:
raise an exception instead.
</ul>
<p>
Here is a strategy for making sendmail fault tolerant.
Sendmail is structured as a collection of processes. The "root" process
does as little as possible, except spawn children to do all of the real
work, monitor the children, and act as traffic cop.
We use exceptions to signal expected but infrequent error conditions,
so that the process encountering the exceptional condition can clean up
and keep going. (Worker processes are intended to be long lived, in
order to minimize forking and increase performance.) But when a bug
is detected in a sendmail worker process, the worker process does minimal
or no cleanup and then dies. A bug might be detected in several ways:
the process might dereference a NULL pointer, receive a signal 11,
core dump and die, or an assertion might fail, in which case the process
commits suicide. Either way, the root process detects the death of the
worker, logs the event, and spawns another worker.
<h2> Rationale for Naming Conventions </h2>
The names "require" and "ensure" come from the writings of Bertrand Meyer,
a prominent evangelist for assertion checking who has written a number of
papers about the "Design By Contract" programming methodology,
and who created the Eiffel programming language.
Many other assertion checking packages for C also have "require" and
"ensure" assertion types. In short, we are conforming to a de-facto
standard.
<p>
We use the names <tt>SM_REQUIRE</tt>, <tt>SM_ASSERT</tt>
and <tt>SM_ENSURE</tt> in preference to to <tt>REQUIRE</tt>,
<tt>ASSERT</tt> and <tt>ENSURE</tt> because at least two other
open source libraries (libisc and libnana) define <tt>REQUIRE</tt>
and <tt>ENSURE</tt> macros, and many libraries define <tt>ASSERT</tt>.
We want to avoid name conflicts with other libraries.
</body>
</html>
|
